四、结语
本文提出与加州学派的学者相左的观点。我认为,尽管工业资本主义在19世纪的英国的兴起不是历史必然,但中国在19世纪或此前或稍后的任何时候都没有可能出现工业资本主义方面的根本性的突破。由于商业发展和繁荣,中国的富庶地区有着较高的生活水准,然而,明清时候的中国,技术创新并没有鼓励性的回报,理论/形式理性极不发达;最重要的是,新儒家意识形态没有面临重大的挑战,而商人无法利用他们的财富来获取政治、军事和意识形态方面的权力从而抗衡国家的权力。与欧洲情况不同的是,晚期中华帝国维持灿烂的商业的原因不是新儒家世界的衰弱和资产阶级力量的崛起,而是帝国庞大的领土和人口所带来的巨大市场和王朝中期特有的长期政治稳定。当欧洲人在19世纪持着现代武器抵达中国时,中国并没有走向工业革命而是走向王朝的衰落。中国并非自发地迈入现代化,而是被西方和日本帝国主义拖入到工业化和现代化的历史进程当中。
(本文发表于《学术月刊》2014年第7期,第157—169页)
[1]Goldstone Jack A.“The Rise of the West-or not?A Revision to Socioeconomic History.”Sociological Theory,Vol.18,2000,p.179.
[2]Blaut James M.The Colonizer's Model of the World:Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History.New York:Guilford Press,1993,ch.4.
[3]Goody,Jack.The East in the West.New York:Cambridge University Press,1996;Goody,Jack.Capitalism and Modernity:The Great Debate.Cambridge,UK:Polity Press,2004.
[4]Abu-Lughod Janet.Before European Hegemony:the World System A.D.1250-1350.New York:Oxford University Press,1989.
[5]Frank Andre Gunder.Reorient:Global Economy in the Asian Age.Berkeley:University of California Press,1998.
[6]Goody Jack.“The Rise of the West-or not?A Revision to Socio-economic History.”Sociological Theory,Vol.18,2000,pp.175-194;Goody,Jack.Why Europe?The Rise of the West in World History,1500-1800.Boston:McGraw Hill,Higher Education,2008.
[7]韦伯的原文是:“中国在所有可能的方向上有能力,甚至比日本更有能力吸收已经在现代文明地区从技术上和经济上完全发展起来的资本主义。显然,对于发展资本主义的条件,中国人并不存在‘毫无天分’(naturally ungifted)的问题。然而,相比于西欧诸国,适应资本主义起源的诸多外部条件还不足以让中国发展出资本主义。”中国经济在1978年经济改革之后的快速发展印证了韦伯的这一观点。见Weber Max.The Religion of China:Confucianism and Taoism.Glencoe,Ill.,Free Press,1951,p.248.
[8]我们只需要回想,在19世纪后期到20世纪早中期前,几乎所有的非西方国家的人们都试图努力向本国引进资本主义及附着其上的价值和思想(包括马克思主义),以建立独立与富强的国家。
[9]Pomeranz Kenneth.The Great Divergence:Europe,China,and the Making of the Modern World Economy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2000.
[10]Pomeranz Kenneth.The Great Divergence:Europe,China,and the Making of the Modern World Economy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2000,p206.王国斌提出了一个相似的问题,见Wong R.Bin.China Transformed:Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience.Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1997.
[11]Huang,Philip.“Development or Involution in Eighteenth-Century Britain and China?”Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.61,2002,pp.501-538;Huang,Philip.“Further Thoughts on Eighteenth-Century Britain and China:Rejoinder to Pomeranz's Response to My Critique.”Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.62,2003,pp.157-167.
[12]参见彭慕兰对于黄宗智批评的反驳。Pomeranz,Kenneth.“Beyond the East-West Binary:Resituating Development Paths in the Eighteenth-Century World.”Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.61,2002,pp.539-590.Pomeranz,Kenneth.“Facts are Stubborn Things:A Response to Philip Huang.”Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.62,2003,pp.167-181.
[13]Lee James Z.and Feng Wang.One Quarter of Humanity:Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities,1700—2000.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1999.李伯重:《江南的农业发展,1620—1850》(圣马丁出版社,1998年)和《多视角看江南济史(1250—1850)》(生活·读书·新知三联书店,2003年);许涤新、吴承明:《中国资本主义1522—1840》(圣马丁出版社,2000年)和《中国资本主义的萌芽》(人民出版社,2003年)。
[14]Landes,David S.“Why Europe and the West?Why not China?”Journal of Economic Perspectives,Vol.20,2006,pp.3-22;Mokyr,Joel.The Lever of Riches:Technological Creativity and Economic Progress.New York:Oxford University Press,1990.
[15]Elvin.The Pattern of the Chinese Past.Stanford:Stanford University Press.1973;Jones,Eric.The European Miracle:Environments,Economics and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1981.
[16]不同的制度与文化背景下的社会能够在一定场合下达到相似的经济发展水平,这一点与其说是例外,毋宁说是规律。苏联和中国的发展表明,在战后重建早期阶段计划经济的表现不差于市场经济。第二次世界大战后的日本是一个民主国家,如今的中国则是威权体制,但它们都创造出了经济“奇迹”。印度和中国如此不同,但它们都在过去的二十年里充当了世界经济的引擎。不过,尽管不同的制度/文化背景下的国家能达到同一水平的经济发展,但是它们的长时段发展轨迹会有很大差异。
[17]在这篇文章中,我将一个有利于获取集体利益的理性行为称之为公共利益导向的工具理性。韦伯没有区分为公的和为私的工具理性,这导致他对现代性的理解出了偏差。参见Zhao,Dingxin.The Rise of the Confucian-Legalist State and Its Legacies in Chinese History.New York:Oxford University Press(to be published),2015;Weber,Max.The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.New York:Charles Scribner's and Sons.1958.
[18]邓钢(Keng G.Deng)认为,“直到19世纪,发展的极限在中国并没有产生严重的负面影响”。即使这个观点并非夸张,我认为,高度发达的中国经济与欧洲的经济并不朝同样的方向发展,且没有可能发展出工业资本主义(Deng,Keng G.“Development and Its Deadlock in Imperial China,221 B.C.-1984 A.D.”Economic Development and Cultural Change,Vol.51,2003,p.507)。
[19]库恩说,“在中国历史上,精英阶层认为商人不可或缺,但同时又认为他们声名狼藉”(Kuhn,Dieter.The Age of Confucian Rule:The Song Transformation of China.Cambridge,Mass.:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,2009,p.207)。
[20]Masatoshi,Tanaka(田中正俊).“Rural Handicraft in Jiangnan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.”in State and Society in China:Japanese Perspectives on Ming-Qing Social and Economic History,edited by Linda Grove and Christian Daniels.Tokyo:University of Tokyo Press,1984,p.79.
[21]Brook,Timothy(卜正民).Praying for Power:Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China.Cambridge,Mass.:Council on East Asian Studies,Harvard University Press,1993.
[22]Deng,Keng G.“Development and Its Deadlock in Imperial China,221 B.C.-1984 A.D.”Economic development and Cultural Change,Vol.51,2003,pp.479-521;Johnson,Linda(张琳德),Cooke,ed.Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China.Albany,NY:State University of New York Press,1993,p.79;Wong,R.Bin.“The Political Economy of Agrarian Empire and Its Modern Legacy.”in China and Historical Capitalism,edited by Timothy Brook and Gregory Blue,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999,p.226.
[23]罗森塔尔(Rosenthal)和王国斌也有类似的说法,认为中国近世经济促进了中国庞大的“政治”(领土和人口规模)。参见Rosenthal,Jean-Laurent,and Bin Wong.Before and Beyond Divergence:The Politics of Economic Change in China and Europe.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2011.
[24]Chow,Kai-wing(周启荣).The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in Late Imperial China:Ethics,Classics,and Lineage Discourse.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1994;von Glahn,Richard(万志英).“Towns and Temples:Urban Growth and Decline in the Yangzi Delta,1100-1400.”in The Song-Yuan-Ming Transition in Chinese History,edited by Paul Jakov Smith and Richard von Glahn,Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Asia Center,Harvard University Press,2003,pp.176-211.
[25]Elman,Benjamin A.On Their Own Terms:Science in China,1550-1900.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2005;Mokyr,Joel,The Lever of Riches:Technological Creativity and Economic Progress.New York:Oxford University Press,1990.
[26]1796年爆发的反叛,清朝花了大约十年时间来平息它。见Rowe,William T(罗威廉).China's Last Empire:The Great Qing.Cambridge,Mass.:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,2009.
[27]欧洲和中国的城市发展也佐证了我的观点。在欧洲(包括英国),13世纪后,城市规模稳步和迅速地扩大。然而,在中国,北宋之后,城市化水平便在同一水平来回摆动。见Bairoch,Paul.Cities and Economic Development:From the Dawn of History to the Present.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1988,pp.153-156.
[28]见赵鼎新和霍尔的经济发展理论,尤其是以国家为中心的解释框架。见Zhao,Dingxin,and John A.Hall.“State Power and Patterns of Late Development:Resolving the Crisis of the Sociology of Development.”Sociology,Vol.28,1994,pp.211-230.
[29]冯贤亮:《明清江南地区的环境变动与社会控制》,上海人民出版社,2002年。
[30]李伯重:《发展与制约——明清江南生产力研究》,联经出版有限公司,2002年,第二章。
[31]Huang,Philip.“Further Thoughts on Eighteenth-Century Britain and China:Rejoinder to Pomeranz's Response to My Critique.”Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.62,2003,p.164;李伯重:《发展与制约——明清江南生产力研究》,联经出版有限公司,2002年,第404页。
[32]Huang,Philip.“Development or Involution in Eighteenth-Century Britain and China?”Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.61,2002,pp.501-538.
[33]Elvin,Mark.The Pattern of the Chinese Past.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1973,p.311.
[34]曹树基:《中国人口史》第4卷《明时期》,复旦大学出版社,2002年,第240—241,452页。
[35]Struve,Lynn A(司徒琳).The Southern Ming,1644—1662.New Haven:Yale University Press,1984.
[36]赵文林、谢淑君:《中国人口史》,人民出版社,1988年。
[37]曹树基:《中国人口史》第5卷《清时期》,复旦大学出版社,2002年,第113页。
[38]Anderson,Perry.Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism.London:NLB,1974;Brenner,Robert.“The Origins of Capitalistic Development:A Critique of Neo-Smithian Marxism.”New Left Review,No.104,1977,pp.25-92.
[39]Boserup,Ester.The Conditions of Agricultural Growth:The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure.New York:Aldine,1965.Boserup,Ester.Population and Technological Change:A Study of Long-Term Trends.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1981.
[40]我的定义不同于韦伯“无理性”和“理性”资本主义的对立概念,而相对接近布罗代尔1992年在三卷本杰作(《15至18世纪的物质文明、经济和资本主义》)中提出的“市场经济”和“资本主义”概念。
[41]Mielants,Eric H.The Origins of Capitalism and the“Rise of the West”.Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2007.
[42]Finer,Samuel E.The History of Government from the Earliest Times,Vol.1-3.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1997,pp.1473-1475.
[43]麦克尼尔曾经敏锐地注意到,传统的政治精英“对商人及市场从业者有普遍的不信任和蔑视……因此,贸易和市场行为尽管很早就已经出现,在公元1000年之前的文明社会中一直处于边缘和从属地位……当人类行为发生大规模变化时,它们更多的是被社会精英群体所引导,而非回应供需和买卖关系的变化”。McNeill,William H.The Pursuit of Power:Technology,Armed Forces,and Society since A.D.1000.Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1982,pp.22-23.
[44]Mann,Michael.The Sources of Social Power,Vol.1:A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D.1760.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986,ch.12-14.
[45]Bartlett,Robert.The Making of Europe:Conquest,Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1350.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1993,ch.7;Mielants,Eric H.The Origins of Capitalism and the“Rise of the West”.Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2007;Tilly,Charles,and Wim P.Blockmans.Cities and the Rise of States in Europe,A.D.1000 to 1800.Boulder:Westview Press,1994;Weber,Max.General Economic History.New Brunswick,NJ:Transaction Books,1981.
[46]Ertman,Thomas.Birth of the Leviathan:Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1997;Tilly,Charles.Coercion,Capital,and European States,A.D.990-1992.Cambridge,Mass.:Basil Blackwell,1992.
[47]我的意思并非是宗教改革后宗教本身在欧洲人生活中的重要性降低了。然而,在政治精英的控制下,宗教愈发服务于统治者而非教皇,它甚至成为国家建设机构的一部分。宗教对欧洲普通民众生活的影响在19世纪后才稍有减弱。参见Gorski,Philip S.The Disciplinary Revolution:Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2003;Kamen,Henry.The Spanish Inquisition,an Historical Revision.London:Weidenfeld &Nicolson,1997;McLeod,Hugh.Secularisation in Western Europe,1848—1914.New York:St.Martin's Press,2000.
[48]参看劳埃德(Lloyd)关于希腊和中国科学传统的差异的论述,卡尔伯格(Kalberg)关于理论和形式理性的定义。Lloyd,Geoffrey E.R.Adversaries and Authorities:Investigations into Ancient Greek and Chinese Science.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996;Kalberg,Stephen.“Max Weber's Types of Rationality:Cornerstones for the Analysis of Rationalization Processes in History.”American Journal of Sociology,Vol.85,1980,pp.1145—1179.
[49]文艺复兴及宗教改革之后,资产阶级意识形态取得了一定地位。托尼(Tawney)经典地描述了以城市为中心的加尔文主义与资产阶级之间的矛盾和妥协如何促进了个人主义精神在16世纪的出现和自由放任主义的最终胜利(Tawney,Richard Henry.Religion and the Rise of Capitalism:A Historical Study.New Brunswick,NJ:Transaction Publishers,1998);吉莱斯皮(Gillespie)分析了人文色彩的个人主义观念如何在14世纪成为基督教的一种新形式,以及它带来的紧张与张力如何推动了宗教改革和现代科学的崛起(Gillespie,Michael Allen.The Theological Origins of Modernity.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2008)。
[50]第一,18世纪之后的发明更多地依赖于当时的科学发展。第二,科学的发展和传播也使工程师具备了新式思维和实验技术,这些对发明来说相当关键。见Mokyr,Joel.The Lever of Riches:Technological Creativity and Economic Progress.New York:Oxford University Press,1990,pp.167-170;Musson,A.E.,ed.Science,Technology,and Economic Growth in the Eighteenth Century.London:Methuen & Co Ltd.,1972.
[51]Abu-Lughod,Janet.Be fore European Hegemony:the World System A.D.1250-1350.New York;Oxford University Press,1989;Hobson,John M.The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004;Huff,Toby E.The Rise of Early Modern Science:Islam,China,and the West.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1993;Landes,David S.The Wealth and Poverty of Nations:Why Some Are so Rich and Some so Poor.New York:W.W.Norton & Company,1998;McNeill,William H.The Pursuit of Power:Technology,Armed Forces,and Society since A.D.1000.Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1982.
[52]Pomeranz,Kenneth.The Great Divergence:Europe,China,and the Making of the Modern World Economy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2000;Frank,Andre Gunder.Reorient:Global Economy in the Asian Age.Berkeley:University of California Press,1998.
[53]另一方面,人类工具性的欲望这一魔怪一旦从传统的魔瓶中逃出并获得主导,就会很难把它关回魔瓶。此类社会在灾难过后的恢复和发展不会需要很长时间。技术的突破只是时间问题。
[54]Goldstone,Jack A.“The Rise of the West-or not?A Revision to Socioeconomic History.”Sociological Theory,Vol.18,2000,pp.175-194;Goldstone,Jack A.Why Europe?The Rise of the West in World History,1500-1800.Boston:McGraw Hill,Higher Education,2008.
[55]15世纪,中国拥有当时世界上最强大的船队,但中国从来没有想过用它来进行海外扩张(Deng,Keng G.Chinese Maritime Activities and Socioeconomic Development,2100 B.C.-1900 A.D.Westport,Conn.:Greenwood Press,1997);直至19世纪初,中国仍是世界主要的经济中心(Frank,Andre Gunder.Reorient:Global Economy in the Asian Age.Berkeley:University of California Press,1998);但是,中国没有把经济优势转化为海外扩张。虽然清朝在内亚的政策具有攻击性(Perdue,Peter C.China Marches West:The Qin Conquest of Central China.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2005),但清朝的扩张不过是在汉族和游牧民族之间的你进我退式的拉锯战的一部分,而这样的拉锯战已经进行了千年。这与早期现代欧洲国家和资产阶级合伙进行的带有极强经济动机的海上扩张有着实质不同。
[56]参看博德(Bodde,Derk.Chinese Thought,Society,and Science:The Intellectual and Social background of Science and Technology in Pre-modern China.Honolulu:University of Hawai'i Press,1991)、劳埃德(Lloyd,Geoffrey E.R.Adversaries and Authorities:Investigations into AncientGreek and Chinese Science.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996)、韩书瑞和罗友枝(Naquin,Susan,and Evelyn S.Rawski.Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century.New Haven:Yale University Press,1987)以及李约瑟(Needham,Joseph.The Grand Titration:Science and Society in East and West.London:Allen & Unwin,1969)关于中国科学和技术传统的讨论。
[57]Deng,Keng G.Development versus Stagnation:Technological Continuity and Agricultural Progress in Pre-modern China.Westport,Conn.:Greenwood Press,1993;Needham,Joseph.The Grand Titration:Science and Society in East and West.London:Allen & Unwin,1969.
[58]Mokyr,Joel.The Lever of Riches:Technological Creativity and Economic Progress.New York:Oxford University Press,1990,p.167.
[59]例如,中国最伟大的科学家沈括从来没有将他自己视为一个科学家,他的大部分知识来自他作为一个政府官员的丰富经验。在沈括政治失势退休在家时,他写了他最有名的书《梦溪笔谈》,许多内容包含了我们今天所谓的科学。见Elman,Benjamin A.On Their Own Terms:Science in China,1550—1900.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2005;又见席文对沈括所取得的成就、心态的研究以及对中国科学的本质的讨论(Sivin N.“Why the Scientific Revolution Did Not Take Place in China-or didn't it?”,Chinese Science,Vol.5,1982,pp.45-65)。
[60]Elman,Benjamin A.On Their Own Terms:Science in China,1550—1900.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2005;Goldstone,Jack A.Why Europe?The Rise of the West in World History,1500—1800.Boston:McGraw Hill,Higher Education,2008;Mokyr,Joel.The Lever of Riches:Technological Creativity and Economic Progress.New York:Oxford University Press,1990.
[61]宋明理学兴起于唐代中期的士大夫运动,在宋代时得到普及,在南宋时成为一种主导思想。到了明清,程朱理学成为国家意识形态,新儒家的典籍成了科举考试的基础,相当多的村落是按照新儒家的原则来组织的。中国因此成为新儒家世界。
[62]Dreyer,Edward L.Zheng He:China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty,1405—1433.New York:Pearson Longman,2007;Levathes Louise(李露华).When China Ruled the Seas:The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne,1400—1433.New York:Simon & Schuster,1994.
[63]Atwell,William S(艾维四).“A Seventeenth-Century‘General Crisis’in East Asia?”in The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century,2nd ed.,edited by Geoffrey Parker and Lesley M.Smith.London:Routledge,1997,pp.235-254;参见全汉昇:《明清经济史研究》,台北:联经出版有限公司,1987年。
[64]Atwell,William S.“A Seventeenth-Century‘General Crisis'in East Asia?”in The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century,2nd ed.,edited by Geoffrey Parker and Lesley M.Smith.London:Routledge,1997,pp.235-254;Wakeman,Frederic Jr(魏斐德).The Great Enterprise:The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China,in two volumes.Berkeley:University of California Press,1985.
[65]正如宗教改革是针对天主教世界的一场大变革,“中国式宗教改革”是指针对新儒家世界的大变革。
[66]正统儒家学说认为儿童的心理和行为需要靠教育来塑造而不是模仿的对象。
[67]Jiang,Jin.“Heresy and Persecution in Late Ming Society:Reinterpreting the Case of Li Zhi.”Late Imperial China,Vol.22,2001,pp.1-34;参见许涤新、吴承明:《中国资本主义的萌芽》,人民出版社,2003年。
[68]McMorran Ian(麦穆伦).“Late Ming Criticism of Wang Yang-ming:The Case of Wang Fu-chih.”Philosophy East and West,Vol.23,1973,pp.91-102.
[69]de Bary,Wm.Theodore(狄百瑞).The Liberal Tradition in China.Hong Kong:The Chinese University Press,1983,ch.4;冯天瑜、谢贵安:《解构专制——明末清初“新民本”思想研究》,(湖北人民出版社,2003年;龚鹏程:《晚明思潮》,商务印书馆,2005年。
[70]Huang,Ray(黄仁宇).1587,A Year of No Significance:The Ming Dynasty in Decline.New Haven:Yale University Press,1981;Jiang,Jin.“Heresy and Persecution in Late Ming Society:Reinterpreting the Case of Li Zhi.”Late Imperial China,Vol.22,2001,pp.1-34.
[71]Mann,Michael.The Sources of Social Power,Vol.1:A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D.1760.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986,p.467.
[72]Zhao,Dingxin.The Rise of the Confucian-Legalist State and Its Legacies in Chinese History.New York:Oxford University Press(to be published),2015.
[73]Naquin Susanand Evelyn S.Rawski.Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century.New Haven:Yale University Press,1987,ch.1.
[74]Chow Kai-wing.The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in Late Imperial China:Ethics,Classics,and Lineage Discourse.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1994.
[75]Guy R.Kent(盖博坚).The Emperor's Four Treasuries:Scholars and the State in the Late Ch'ien-Lung Era.Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Press,1987,ch.3.
[76]我同意艾尔曼的观点。考据学代表了帝制中国思想史上一个重要的转变。其代表人物的一些想法和明清之际的一些非正统文人的思想与欧洲文艺复兴时期的思想家有相似之处。但是,我想强调晚明和清中期的非正统思想对清代政治、文化和社会的塑造力远不能与文艺复兴时的思潮对欧洲政治、文化和社会所造成的深度影响相比。Elman,Benjamin A.From Philosophy to Philology:Intellectual and Social Aspect of Change in Late Imperial China.Cambridge,Mass.:Council on East Asian Studies,Harvard University Press,1984,p.6.
[77]Chow Kai-wing.The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in Late Imperial China:Ethics,Classics,and Lineage Discourse.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1994.
[78]张维屏:《纪昀与乾嘉学术》,台湾大学出版委员会,1998年,第206—212页。
[79]Guy R.Kent.The Emperor's Four Treasuries:Scholars and the State in the Late Ch'ien-Lung Era.Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Press,1987,p.46.
[80]de Bary Wm Theodore.The Liberal Tradition in China.Hong Kong:The Chinese University Press,1983,p.101.
[81]Skinner,William G.“Marketing and Social Structure in Rural China,”Journal of Asian Studies,Vol.24,no.(1-3),1964-1965,pp.3-43,195-228,363-399.
[82]例如,嘉兴府在明代初期只有三个县,到1429年增至七个县。在明代,松江州只有三个县,到清朝时发展到九个县。所有这些都是国家行为所致。冯贤亮:《明清江南地区的环境变动与社会控制》,上海人民出版社,2002年,第2章。
[83]Skinner,William G.ed.The City in Late Imperial China.Stanford,Calif:Stanford University Press,1977,pp.3-31;Twitchett,Denis C.(崔瑞德).“Merchant,Trade and Government in Late T'ang,”Asia Major,no.14,part1,1968,pp.63-95.
[84]罗威廉看到19世纪的欧洲与中国城市之间的重要区别。当西欧的大城市经历着由工业革命所带来的大规模的城市骚乱和阶级政治时,同一时期的中国城市由于当地官员与社会精英的共识和协理而呈现善治的局面。参见Rowe,William T.Hankow:Conflict and Community in a Chinese City,1796-1895.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1989.
[85]Bartlett,Robert.The Making of Europe:Conquest,Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1350.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1993,ch.7.
[86]Finnane,Antonia(安东篱).“Yangzhou:A Central Place in the Qing Empire.”,in Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China,edited by Linda Cooke Johnson,Albany,NY:State University of New York Press,1993,pp.117-49;
Johnson Linda Cooke,ed.Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China.Albany,NY:State University of New York Press,1993;Marme Michael(马麦可).“Heaven on Earth:The Rise of Suzhou,1127-1550”,in Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China,edited by Linda Cooke Johnson,Albany,NY:State University of New York Press,1993,pp.17-45;Shiba Yoshinobu(斯波义信).Commerce and Society in Sung China,translated by Mark Elvin.Ann,1970.
[87]例如,清朝以非常务实的态度对待商人,这使得经济在经历了明清更替时的灾难性的破坏之后马上迎来了复苏。Rowe William T.China's Last Empire:The Great Qing.Cambridge,Mass:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,2009,p.132.
[88]Wong,R.Bin.“The Political Economy of Agrarian Empire and Its Modern Legacy”,in China and Historical Capitalism,edited by Timothy Brook and Gregory Blue,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999,pp.222-226.
[89]许涤新、吴承明:《中国资本主义的萌芽》,人民出版社,2003年,第710—726页。
[90]Naquin Susan and Evelyn S.Rawski.Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century.New Haven:Yale University Press,1987,p.123.
[91]Mann,Susan.Local Merchants and the Chinese Bureaucracy,1750-1950.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1987.
[92]Lufrano,Richard John(陆冬远).Honorable Merchants:Commerce and Self-Cultivation in Late Imperial China.Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press,1997.
[93]Brook Timothy.The Confusions of Pleasure:Commerce and Culture in Ming China.Berkeley:University of California Press,1998,pp.215-216.