五、结 语
尽管国际法遵守领域相对不发达的发展状态意味着理论的提出,而不是具体分析,在目前的研究阶段依然占据主流,但它最终的目标还是要用解释性和预见性来具体化和检验理论。在社会科学的研究中提出和检验理论特别需要大量的案例,但随着调查中理论的特定化和(或)现象复杂性的增加,分析所需案例的数量在降低。有些现象,包括预防性自卫的实践非常少以至于没有充分的案例,无法使用传统的定量方法来检验一般性命题。实际上,目前研究所能提供的案例非常少,并且它们与人的主观能动性和社会过程存在的因果联系非常复杂,或者这些案例根植于特定的背景中以至于定量方法的作用微乎其微,这导致它们的解释力极不充分,对现象的描述也很贫瘠。
尽管20世纪50年代的行为主义革命对社会学研究依然有微妙的压力,把这些复杂和在社会背景中敏感的社会现象,包括法律遵守的一般性研究转变为多元数据可以回答的实证研究,定量分析并不总是恰当的;但不可否认的是,定量或者说以变量为依归的分析方法依然提供了强有力的方法,可以用于分析范围广泛的案例各种各样的复杂变异。然而,以变量为依归的分析是一种推理过程,它没有将案件作为一个整体来看待或者将它们直接互相对比,而是将它们视为有限变量的集合和来自相关案例的样本研究可辨认的变量模式。通过从自然环境中提取有限数量的独立变量并排除其他变量的理论无关性,以变量为依归的分析丧失了在因果链条中对人的主观能动性给予欣赏和理解的特点。此外,定量方法的强迫性使用对于研究者事业的伤害更大——通过删除对于特定研究可能更加恰当的“软”方法,以变量为依归的分析在“删除社会科学的背景和观众”中也扮演了不小的角色。
我们要清楚,社会科学和自然科学研究中最为关键的区别是所研究问题的性质,而不是特定的方法论偏好。它将推动实验的设计方案和对数据的选取方法。当研究的主题所能提供的案件极少,当因果关系的假设链条包括了人的主观能动性和围绕决策的社会过程,当结果是对每个独一无二的决策时刻进行特定选择的结果,以案件为依归,而非以变量为依归的方法最适合在理论的发展和检验过程中将最为广泛的重要独立变量纳入其内并予以确认。国际人道法遵守的研究处于婴幼儿时期,数据本身比较缺乏,学者们最好留心那些探寻法律和决策之间关系的研究,而“放弃数据的方法”,后者更加适用于“软性的经验研究”。这么做的巨大挑战在于我们所确认的方法应该能够将所有研究过程系统化,在保留活力、逻辑一贯性、兼容度、普遍性和简洁性的同时能够提供某种程度上的解释力和预见力。
(本文编辑:范斯一)
【注释】
[1]本文编译自William Bradford,In The Minds of Men:A Theory of Compliance with the Laws of War,Arizona State Law Journal,Winter 2004.本文为该原文的缩写编译版,如需要参考原文的读者请阅读原文。
[2]威廉·布拉德福德(William Bradford)系美国印第安纳大学法学院副教授。
[3]高云端系集美大学财经学院讲师,厦门大学法学院博士研究生。
[4]C.G.Weeramantry,Universalising International Law,2004.
[5]See John K.Setear,An Iterative Perspective on Treaties:A Synthesis of International Relations Theory and International Law,Harvard International Law Journal,1996,p.139~140.David J.Bederman,The Spirit of International Law,2002,p.22.(他认为目前国际法已经展示出“很多‘成熟的’国内法律体制的特点”。)
[6]See JoséE.Alvarez,Why Nations Behave,Mich.Journal of International Law,1998,p.303,303.(他预计会有越来越多的国际法律规则预示着传统主权观念的“终结”。)
[7]Louis Henkin,How Nations Behave:Law and Foreign Policy,1968.
[8]See Eric A.Posner,A Theory of the Laws of War,University Chicago Law Review,2003,p.297.(他发现即使在战争期间,国家也会为其行为的非法性激烈争吵或者努力为自己的违法行为辩解,将其归为合法性例外。)
[9]See Hilaire McCoubrey,Natural Law,Religion and the Development of International Law,in Religion and International Law,edited by Mark W.Janis&Carolyn Evans(eds.),2004,p.177,177~178.(他提出,关于国际法是否“确实为法律”的争议仍在继续。)Kal Raustiala&Anne-Marie Slaughter,International Law,International Relations and Compliance,in Handbook of International Relations,edited by Walter Carlsnaes et al.(eds.),2002,p.538,p.540.(他发现“‘冷战’的大部分时期,国际法研究只是证明‘国际法意义重大’的庞大计划的一部分”。)
[10]认为国际法因为不具备垄断性的权威执行机制而不是真正的法律的观点正在越来越少。See David J.Bederman,The Spirit of International Law,2002,pp.1~2.
[11]See Miles Kahler,Conclusion:The Causes and Consequences of Legalization,International Organization,2000,p.661,p.667.(该文注意到尽管正式的法律机制禁止酷刑,但很多国家,包括很多民主国家依然从事这项行为。)see generally Oona A.Hathaway,Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?Yale Law Journal,2002,p.1935.(该文讨论了国际人道法中持续存在的不遵守现象。)
[12]See generally Steven R.Ratner,Does International Law Matter in Preventing Ethnic Conflict?New York University Journal of International Law&Policy,2000,p.591.(该文讨论国际法中的种族冲突问题。)部分研究者追求国际关系中是否存在特定的领域,比如武力使用,或者其他“高级政治”领域,由于涉及国际生存和国家安全最为核心的问题,因而不可规范。See,e.g.,John Norton Moore,Enhancing Compliance with International Law:A Neglected Remedy,Va.Journal of International Law,1999,p.881,884.(“未来法律国际化最大的挑战是调高遵守程度,甚至在一些传统上现实主义者认为法律不可规范的领域。”)
[13]See Oran R.Young,Compliance and Public Authority:A Theory with International Applications,1979,pp.3~5.
[14]See,e.g.,Andrew T.Guzman,A Compliance-Based Theory of International Law,Cal.Law Review,2002,p.1826.(几乎所有理论都承认遵守的问题只在国家有能力遵守法律的情况下具有理论上的重大意义。缺乏这种能力,遵守决策事实上就不是一种选择,尽管大部分国家都有能力守法。)
[15]Richard L.Williamson,Jr.,Hard Law,Soft Law,and Non-Law in Multilateral Arms Control:Some Compliance Hypotheses,Chi.Journal of International Law,2003,pp.69~70.
[16]See,e.g.,Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,Measuring the Effects of Human Rights Treaties,Eur.Journal of International Law,2003,p.175.
[17]Richard L.Williamson,Jr.,Hard Law,Soft Law,and Non-Law in Multilateral Arms Control:Some Compliance Hypotheses,Chi.Journal of International Law,2003,p.59.
[18]For a survey of competing theories,see Christopher Greenwood,Ensuring Compliance with the Law of Armed Conflict,in Control over Compliance with International Law,edited by W.E.Butler(ed.),1991,pp.195~196;see also Edith Brown Weiss,Introduction,in International Compliance with Nonbinding Accords,edited by Edith Brown Weiss(ed.),1997,p.8.
[19]See Daniel E.Ho,Compliance&International Soft Law:Why Do Countries Implement the Basle Accord?Journal of International Economical Law,2002,p.647.(暗示国家对于接受会实质性约束行为的法律义务极其谨慎。)
[20]See JoséE.Alvarez,Why Nations Behave,Mich.Journal of International Law,1998,p.303.该文定义有效性并将其与法律遵守作比。
[21]George W.Downs et al.,Is the Good News About Compliance Good News About Cooperation?International Organization,1996,pp.379~380.大量国际法义务可能实际上是“自我执行”的,因为它们只是要求国家继续不受法律规约状态下的行为。See Roger Fisher,Improving Compliance with International Law,Robert Kogod Goldman(ed.),1981,pp.127~129.
[22]Kal Raustiala,Compliance&Effectiveness in International Regulatory Cooperation,Case W.Res,Journal of International Law,2000,pp.394~396.
[23]“有效性”,或者说法律机制对行为改变的程度,一般是作为“遵守”的后续程序发生的。有效性研究认为如果机制造就了重大的行为转变并且这种转变是由于规则导致的,那么即使遵守程度低,法律机制依然可以有效。另一方面,在遵守程度高的情况下,如果机制只是将重复此前既有的国家行为模式的规则组织起来,有效性依然很低。尽管“遵守”和“有效性”是不同的概念,这种区别在本文的背景下理论意义不大。
[24]See Peter M.Haas,Choosing To Comply:Theorizing from International Relations and Comparative Politics,in Commitment and Compliance:The Role of Non-Binding Norms in the International Legal System,edited by Dinah Shelton(ed.),2000,pp.43~44.(“对于国家遵守国际承诺的水平实际上知之甚少,实证研究最多只是表明国家遵守国际法的程度很不平衡的。”)Harold K.Jacobson,Conceptual,Methodological and Substantive Issues Entwined in Studying Compliance,Mich.Journal of International Law,1998,pp.569~571.(“有关国家遵守众多国际义务程度的系统性认知极其有限。”)Kal Raustiala&Anne-Marie Slaughter,International Law,International Relations and Compliance,in Handbook of International Relations,edited by Walter Carlsnaes et al.(eds.),2002,p.548.(“有关国际法遵守理论的实证研究很有限。缺乏系统的、多案例的比较性研究极大限制了国际法遵守理论所能提供的命题的性质。”)
[25]See generally Jack Goldsmith,Sovereignty,International Relations Theory,and International Law,Stanley Law Review,2000,p.959,984.(“国际法学科在方法论上还不够精致。”);Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,How To Influence States:Socialization and International Human Rights Law,Duke Law Journal,forthcoming 2005,p.54.(该文的结论认为,“第一代”实证国际法研究在大量至关重要的事项上的实证假设“既不检验,也不予证明”,因而没有为其自身所隐含的机制设计提供充分证明。)
[26]See Robert Jervis,Security Regimes,in International Regimes,edited by Stephen D.Krasner(ed.),1983,pp.173~176.关于“高级政治和低级政治”之区别的讨论,See Robert O.Keohane&Joseph S.Nye,Power and Interdependence:World Politics in Transition,1977,pp.23~29.
[27]See David H.Moore,A Signaling Theory of Human Rights Compliance,Nw.U.Law Review,2003,p.879.[该文认为“不遵守是普遍的……关于遵守的假设(在挑衅主权的事项中,比如人权领域)可能与事实相距甚远”];George W.Downs et al.,Is the Good News About Compliance Good News About Cooperation?International Organization,1996,p.380.(该文认为当条约只是要求国家“轻微”调整自己行为,就会产生高水平的遵守。)
[28]David J.Bederman,The Spirit of International Law 190,2002.
[29]See Hazel Fox&Michael Meyer(eds.),Effecting Compliance xiii,1993.“对武装冲突法的有效遵守是当前一项主要的挑战,是对所谓新世界秩序的艰难考验。”see also Steven R.Ratner,Overcoming Temptations To Violate Human Dignity in Times of Crisis:On the Possibilities for Meaningful Self-Restraint,Theoretical Inquiries Law,2004,p.81,p.83.(该文注意到国际人道法体制“似乎是所有国际法规则中效力最为羸弱的”。)
[30]Hans-Peter Gasser,Ensuring Respect for the Geneva Conventions and Protocols:The Role of Third States and the United Nations,in Effecting Compliance,p.16.
[31]See James D.Morrow,The Laws of War,Common Conjectures,and Legal Systems in International Politics,Journal of Legal Study,2002,p.41,41~43;See Eric A.Posner,A Theory of the Laws of War,Univercity Chicago Law Review,2003,p.297.
[32]See Theodore Millon,Normality:What May We Learn from Evolutionary Theory?in The Diversity of Normal Behavior:Further Contributions to Normatology,edited by Daniel Offer&Melvin Sabshin(eds.),1991,p.356,p.358.(该文认为“相予隔离,互不联系的智识和技术……是原始科学的标志”。)
[33]See George H.Aldrich,Compliance with the Law:Problems and Prospects,in Effecting Compliance,p.3.(该文指出,缺乏一个有效的法律机制是“当今困扰国际人道法的核心问题”,社会科学中的预言可能是愚蠢的差使,特别当我们关注的是高度偶然的、快速变化和案件非常特殊的领域,在这类领域中必须“考虑到细节的独一无二性,这些细节不管在概率上还是时间的不可逆上,都不可能再发生一次了”。)
[34]在一个快速增长的领域任何对现存理论的审查都必然是流于表面的,它们泯灭了理论之间固有的区别同时刻意制造另一些区别。所调查集群的复杂程度要比本文所涉及的内容深得多。
[35]See,e.g.,Hans J.Morgenthau,Politics Among Nations:The Struggle for Power and Peace,3d ed.,1960,pp.27~35.(该书讨论了国际政治中权力的角色和地位。)
[36]See Hans J.Morgenthau,Positivism,Functionalism,and International Law,A-merican Journal of International Law,1940,p.260,p.269.(该文将国际法中“对权力的渴望”描述为一种“驱动力”。)
[37]See,e.g.,Kenneth N.Waltz,Man,the State and War:A Theoretical Analysis,1959,pp.231~232.(该文不予讨论战争的“意外原因”比如“人类的非理性”或者规则或者意识形态,认为它们不是“战争起源”理论的结果。)
[38]See John J.Mearsheimer,The Tragedy of Great Power Politics,2001,pp.17~18.
[39]大量学者认为西方计划中促进诸如波斯尼亚、科索沃和伊拉克这样地区的法制化的内容已经变成彻头彻尾的帝国主义事业。在这项事业中,受到大军阀支持的外国行政官员实际上主宰了社会,他们宣称这些社会尚未做好自治的准备,显然这种情况下,法律充当了达到现实主义目的的打手。See,e.g.,William Bradford,The Western European Union,Yugoslavia,and the(Dis)integration of the EU,the New Sick Man of Europe,B.C.International&Comparative Law Review,2000,p.13.
[40]尽管现实主义者承认规则的存在可以改变政治决策的成本和收益,但他们不认为规则对于国家偏好和外交决策具有独立的因果关系的效应。See,e.g.,Beth A.Simmons,Compliance with International Agreements,Ann.Review of Political Science,1998,p.75,p.80.(“现实主义者关注的是权力和利益的基本变量,极少深入探究国家对国际条约的遵守。”)
[41]See Peter M.Haas,Choosing To Comply:Theorizing from International Relations and Comparative Politics,in Commitment and Compliance:The Role of Non-Binding Norms in the International Legal System,edited by Dinah Shelton(ed.),2000,pp.51~52.(该文注意到现实主义者认为遵守与既定法律规则对主权完整的侵蚀程度相互联系,因而将在人权领域、环境事项、贸易和军备控制等领域程度最高。)
[42]Stanley Hoffman,The Role of International Organization:Limits and Possibilities,1956,p.364.
[43]See Jeffrey W.Legro,Cooperation Under Fire:Anglo-German Restraint During World War II 10,1995.(“当权力平衡达到这样的程度,即任何一方首先使用武力都会导致两败俱伤,国家会希望双方的克制。”)
[44]See,e.g.,Hans J.Morgenthau,The Twilight of International Morality,1948,p.79,pp.80~81.
[45]See JoséE.Alvarez,Why Nations Behave,Mich.Journal of International Law,1998,p.303.
[46]“In time of war,the laws are silent.”Attributed to Cicero,circa 50 B.C.
[47]See James D.Morrow,The Laws of War,Common Conjectures,and Legal Systems in International Politics,Journal of Legal Studies,2002,p.30.
[48]John Norton Moore,Enhancing Compliance with International Law:A Neglected Remedy,Va.Journal of International Law,1999,p.887.(“一个缺乏高度集中机制的体系允许其成员方采取反措施,这会成为促进法律遵守最为重要的机制之一。”)
[49]See See Peter M.Haas,Choosing To Comply:Theorizing from International Relations and Comparative Politics,in Commitment and Compliance:The Role of Non-Binding Norms in the International Legal System,edited by Dinah Shelton(ed.),2000,p.1,p.5.
[50]See Richard R.Baxter,Forces for Compliance with the Law of War,Am.Soc’y International Law and Proc.,1964,pp.82~83.(该文强调个体和集体的制裁威慑是普遍国际法执行,特别是国际人道法执行的关键性要素。)
[51]See,e.g.,Lt.Robert A.Bailey,Why Do States Violate the Law of War?A Comparison of Iraqi Violations in Two Gulf Wars,Journal of International Law&Com.,2000,p.103,p.104.
[52]George W.Downs et al.,Is the Good News About Compliance Good News About Cooperation?International Organization,1996,pp.379~387;see generally Jack Goldsmith,Sovereignty,International Relations Theory,and International Law,Stanley Law Review,2000,p.979~985.(该文强调制裁能够最大促进法律遵守。)
[53]See generally Andrew Moravcsik,Taking Preferences Seriously:A Liberal Theory of International Politics,International Organization,1997,p.513.
[54]See generally Andrew Moravcsik,Taking Preferences Seriously:A Liberal Theory of International Politics,International Organization,1997,p.513.
[55]See Philip R.Trimble,International Law,World Order,and Critical Legal Studies,Stanley Law Review,1990,p.811,p.842.[“部分学者(比如自由民主派学者)相对于其他人更加倾向于支持法制化和‘法律规则’。”]
[56]See generally John Norton Moore,Solving the War Puzzle:Beyond the Democratic Peace,2004.
[57]See Eric A.Posner,A Theory of the Laws of War,University Chicago Law Review,2003,pp.312~314.(该文分析了批准国际人道法条约的国家,并认为民主国家相比于非民主国家对国际人道法“更加乐观”。)
[58]See Roger Fisher,I mproving Compliance with International Law,Robert Kogod Goldman(ed.),1981,pp.127~129.
[59]See,e.g.,Miles Kahler,Conclusion:The Causes and Consequences of Legalization,International Organization,2000,p.677.
[60]See Amartya Sen,Rational Fools:A Critique of the Behavioural Foundations of Economic Theory,in Scientific Models and Man,edited by Henry Harris(ed.),1979,pp.5~6.
[61]See,e.g.,Robert O.Keohane,International Relations and International Law:Two Optics,Harvard.Internatino al Law Journal,1997,p.487,p.495.
[62]只有少量理性选择学派学者认为个人是同质的经济人,是“‘无所不知的计算器’,能够轻而易举地进行所有决策所要求的认知操作”。Richard R.Law,Models of Decision-Making,in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology,edited by David O.Sears et al.(eds.),2003,p.24.
[63]See Eric A.Posner,Law and Social Norms,2000.
[64]See Peter H.Huang,International Environmental Law and Emotional Rational Choice,Journal of Legal Study,2002,pp.241~243.(该文认为个人决策者同时决定社会性后果并且是理性的。)
[65]See Oran R.Young,Compliance and Public Authority:A Theory with International Applications 3-5,1979,pp.18~20.(该文将自利作为个人遵守的基础。)
[66]See Eric A.Posner,Law and Social Norms,2000,p.8.(该文解释了理性选择理论假设制裁能够在促进遵守的方向上改变国家偏好。)不遵守也会导致不恰当的成本,它能劝导其他国家不要以违法者的身份来解决集体行动问题,比如建立安全或者环境机制。See Eric A.Posner,A Theory of the Laws of War,University Chicago Law Review,2003,pp.314~315.
[67]See Jack L.Goldsmith&Eric A.Posner,A Theory of Customary International Law,University Chicago Law Review,1999,p.1113.(该文否定了法律规则自身就能产生任何遵守动力的观点,它强调国家利益和法律规则的汇聚是有效机制的关键性要素。)
[68]See James D.Morrow,The Laws of War,Common Conjectures,and Legal Systems in International Politics,Journal of Legal Study,2002,p.46.理性选择理论的学者否定在武装冲突领域中声誉制裁的重要性,在战争的条件之下国家对于利益最大化的界定在于国家的生存和权力,而非社会地位。
[69]See id.p.303.
[70]See A.P.V.Rogers,Law on the Battlefield,1996.(该书将“必要性”定义为“交战方为了完全制服敌方合理使用强制力或者任何类型的武力措施的最低门槛要求”。)
[71]目前国际人道法的“必要性”原则是为了保护平民免遭战争伤害,要求武装力量不得被用于造成“超越所能预期的直接军事优势相联系”的伤害。R.R.Baxter,Modernizing the Law of War,Military Law Review,1977,pp.178~179.
[72]目前国际人道法的“区别性”原则强调战争的唯一合法目的是摧毁敌方的军事装备,严格禁止故意针对非战斗人员和平民目标的袭击。See Christopher C.Burris,Re-Examining the Prisoner of War Status of PLO Fedayeen,N.C.Journal of International Law&Comparative Regime,1997,pp.964~967.
[73]See Eric A.Posner,A Theory of the Laws of War,University Chicago Law Review,2003,p.302.
[74]See,e.g.,Eric A.Posner&Alan O.Sykes,Optimal War and Jus Ad Bellum,Univ.of Chicago Law&Econ.,Olin Working Paper No.211,Univ.of Chicago Pub.Law Working Paper No.63,2004,available at http://ssrn.com/abstract_id=546104,last visted Apr.11,2005.
[75]Abram Chayes&Antonia Handler Chayes,The New Sovereignty:Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements,1995,p.27.
[76]See Abram Chayes&Antonia Handler Chayes,The New Sovereignty:Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements,1995,pp.9~10.部分遵守也可以用于支持管理过程理论认为遵守是常例的争议。管理过程理论的学者厌恶就不遵守问题作出解释。
[77]George W.Downs et al.,Is the Good News About Compliance Good News About Cooperation?International Organization,1996,p.380.目前管理过程理论的研究认为遵守多边条约可能来自“普遍但有区别责任”的普遍认同,该原则提出国家会因为自身执行条约的技术和经济能力的差异而出现差异,正式的规则,或者至少对遵守的解释必须将这种能力的不平衡纳入考量。
[78]Kal Raustiala&Anne-Marie Slaughter,International Law,International Relations and Compliance,in Handbook of International Relations,edited by Walter Carlsnaes et al.(eds.),2002,p.543.(该书解释称,管理过程理论的学者认为遵守是“通过一系列相互联系、间或隐性的过程组合而成的连续统一体”,有时候某些机制对于不遵守的容忍程度非常高。管理过程理论将国际法律机制视为极其灵活的存在以至于足以容忍一定程度的不遵守,特别在为了保证强国不致退出机制的时候。)
[79]See Robert O.Keohane,After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,1984.
[80]典型的管理成本包括协调利益、方便谈判和提供监督以及信息发布所必需的机制维持成本。See e.g.,Robert O.Keohane,International Relations and International Law:Two Optics,Harvard International Law Journal,1997,pp.501~502.
[81]See James D.Morrow,The Laws of War,Common Conjectures,and Legal Systems in International Politics,Journal of Legal Studies,2002,pp.52~53.
[82]See James D.Morrow,The Institutional Features of the Prisoners of War Treaties,International Organization,2001,pp.975~976.
[83]Robert O.Keohane,International Relations and International Law:Two Optics,Harvard International Law Journal,1997,p.492.(“在相互依赖的世界内……值得信赖的良好声誉非常重要。”)
[84]Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,Toward an Institutional Theory of Sovereignty,Stanley.Law Review,2003,p.1778.
[85]See David H.Moore,A Signaling Theory of Human Rights Compliance,Nw.Univercity Law Review,2003,p.903.
[86]Steven R.Ratner,Precommitment Theory and International Law:Starting a Conversation,Tex.Law Review,2003,p.2058.(该文根据声誉理论详细描述了国家对多边条约予以批准的一种解释模型。)
[87]See Andrew T.Guzman,A Compliance-Based Theory of International Law,Cal.Law Review,2002,p.1828.
[88]Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,How To Influence States:Socialization and International Human Rights Law,Duke Law Journal,forthcoming 2005.(该文将理性选择理论的核心问题定义为“如何将‘坏行为体’最大程度社会化”。)
[89]See Andrew T.Guzman,A Compliance-Based Theory of International Law,Cal.Law Review,2002,p.1838.
[90]See Eric A.Posner,Law and Social Norms,2000,p.41.
[91]See Peter M.Haas,Choosing To Comply:Theorizing from International Relations and Comparative Politics,in Commitment and Compliance:The Role of Non-Binding Norms in the International Legal System,edited by Dinah Shelton(ed.),2000,pp.52~53.
[92]Oona A.Hathaway,Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?Yale Law Journ al,2002,p.1961.(该文描述了国内法对国际规则和标准的内化是一个主要通过外交人员进行的过程,它有时候也会通过行政命令、立法过程和司法判决加以执行。)
[93]Kal Raustiala&Anne-Marie Slaughter,International Law,International Relations and Compliance,in Handbook of International Relations,edited by Walter Carlsnaes et al.(eds.),2002,p.544.
[94]See,e.g.,Johanna van Sambeek&Mireille Hector,Disseminating of IHL at the Domestic Level,in Making the Voice of Humanity Heard,edited by L.Lijnzaad et al.(eds.),2004,pp.384~397.(该书将在国内社会传播国际人道法的智识与提高遵守程度相互联系。)
[95]See Martha Finnemore,National Interests in International Society,1996.(该书暗示称,“基本的道德感和个体行为”在理解个体和国家动机方面跟理性计算一样重要。)
[96]See generally Robert C.Ellickson,Order Without Law:How Neighbors Settle Disputes,1991;Harold G.Grasmick&Robert J.Bursik,Jr.,Conscience,Significant Others,and Rational Choice:Extending the Deterrence Model,Law&Society Review,1990.
[97]Thomas M.Franck,Fairness in International Law and Institutions,1995.合法性,被认为与道德感相互区分的原因在于根据道德感遵守法律意味着法律的主要内容被认为是内在公正的;如果根据合法性遵守法律则是认为该机制合法,它隐含了这样一种认知——执行法律的权威有权力命令我们的行为。See Tom R.Tyler,Why People Obey the Law,1990,p.4.
[98]See Tom R.Tyler,Why People Obey the Law,1990,p.31.
[99]See Roger Fisher,Improving Compliance with International Law,Robert Kogod Goldman(ed.),1981,p.111.
[100]See Hazel Fox&Michael Meyer(eds.),Effecting Compliance xiii,1993,p.21.
[101]See Christopher Gelpi,The Power of Legitimacy:Assessing the Role of Norms in Crisis Bargaining,2003.
[102]See Alexander Wendt,Collective Identity Formation and the International State,American Policy Science Review,1994,pp.385~386.(该文详细描述了规则在“建构”国家中的作用。)
[103]See generally Peter J.Katzenstein(ed.),The Culture of National Security:Norms and Identity in World Politics,1996.
[104]See John Gerard Ruggie,What Makes the World Hang Together?Neo-Utilitarianism and the Social Constructivist Challenge,International Organization,1998,pp.874~879.
[105]See generally H.L.A.Hart,The Concept of Law,2d ed.,1994.
[106]See Jeffrey W.Legro,Cooperation Under Fire:Anglo-German Restraint During World War II,1995,p.23.
[107]See Peter M.Haas,Introduction:Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination,International Organization,1992,p.1,p.3,p.27.
[108]Benedict Kingsbury,The Concept of Compliance as a Function of Competing Conceptions of International Law,Mich.Journal of International Law,1998,pp.362~368.组织性文化理论强调,即使国家与相关社会团体发生互惠的相互影响,国家依然由相关社会团体的组织性文化塑造。
[109]See Jeffrey W.Legro,Cooperation under Fire:Anglo-German Restraint during World War II 10,1995,p.2.
[110]See Jeffrey W.Legro,Cooperation under Fire:Anglo-German Restraint during World War II 10,1995,pp.41~143.
[111]See Maurice Keen,Nobles,Knights,and Men-at-Arms,pp.51~59.
[112]Mark J.Osiel,Obeying Orders:Atrocity,Military Discipline and the law of War,1999,p.21.
[113]See Jeffrey W.Legro,Cooperation Under Fire:Anglo-German Restraint During World War II 10,1995,p.27,p.149.
[114]See,e.g.,James F.Voss&Ellen Dorsey,Perception and International Relations:An Overview,in Political Psychology and Foreign Policy,edited by Eric Singer&Valerie Hudson(eds.),1992,p.24.
[115]See Roger Fisher,Improving Compliance with International Law,Robert Kogod Goldman(ed.),1981,p.92.(https://www.daowen.com)
[116]See,e.g.,Nils Petter Gleditsch,Democracy and Peace,Journal of Peace Res.,1992,pp.369~370.(该文发现在民主国家和非民主国家之间战争参与率并无很大波动。)See generally Bruce Russett,Grasping the Democratic Peace:Principles for a Post-Cold War World,1993.(该书认为“民主和平论”忽视了国际人道法遵守的问题。)
[117]Jacqueline Alder&Gaul Lugten,Frozen Fish Block:How Committed Are North Atlantic States to Accountability,Conservation and Management of Fisheries?Marine Policy,2002,p.345,356.;see,e.g.,Oona A.Hathaway,Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?Yale Law Journal,2002,p.2016.部分学者甚至认为由于“同意”经常与遵守的减损相互联系,民主国家相对于非民主国家更加倾向于同意条约,因此在民主国家和遵守之间存在负相关的联系。See Daniel E.Ho,Compliance&International Soft Law:Why Do Countries Implement the Basle Accord?Journal of International Economical Law,2002,p.881.
[118]See Daniel E.Ho,Compliance&International Soft Law:Why Do Countries Implement the Basle Accord?Journal of International Economical Law,2002,pp.663~683.
[119]See generally Thomas Ulen,Rational Choice in Law and Economics,in Encyclopedia of Law and Economics,edited by Boudewijn Boukert&Geerit de Geest(eds.),2000,p.790.
[120]See generally John W.Burton(ed.),Conflict:Human Needs Theory,1990.(该书讨论了将“人性需求理论”作为解决和避免冲突的基础。)For a critique of RCT as a reductionist approach,see William H.Riker,The Political Psychology of Rational Choice Theory,Political Psychology,1995,p.23.
[121]See Robert O.Keohane,After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,1984,pp.69~70.(该书警告称理性选择理论无法在国际关系研究中作“技术性的应用”,因为世界上存在“罪人和圣徒”。)
[122]Robert M.Jervis,Perception and Misperception:In International Politics,1976,p.113.
[123]Lloyd S.Etheredge,A World of Men:The Private Sources of American Foreign Policy,1978,p.100.
[124]George W.Downs et al.,Is the Good News About Compliance Good News About Cooperation?,International Organization,1996,p.391.;see also Kal Raustiala,Compliance&Effectiveness in International Regulatory Cooperation,Case W.Res.J.International Law,2000,p.405~408;Andrew T.Guzman,A Compliance-Based Theory of International Law,Cal.Law Review,2002,pp.1832~1833.(“只要我们‘协调性博弈’感兴趣,管理过程理论就为遵守和国家行为的解释提供了非常的指南。”)
[125]See Robert O.Keohane,International Relations and International Law:Two Optics,Harvard International Law Journal,1997,p.497.
[126]See,e.g.,Andrew T.Guzman,A Compliance-Based Theory of International Law,Cal.Law Review,2002,pp.1883~1884.(该文认为“当决策的范围大到如此广泛的程度,遵守国际承诺之良好声誉的价值很少能够大到影响决策结果”。)
[127]For a critique of LT,See Benedict Kingsbury,The Concept of Compliance as a Function of Competing Conceptions of International Law,Mich.Journal of International Law,1998,pp.356~357.
[128]Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,How to Influence States:Socialization and International Human Rights Law,Duke Law Journa l.
[129]See Claire R.Kelly,Realist Theory and Real Constraints,Va.Journal of International Law,2004,pp.545~635.
[130]See Leroy N.Rieselbach&George I.Balch,Psychology and Politics,1969.(该书将个人视为“独特的、自主的个体,虽然个人行为受到塑造其自身的文化和社会情境影响,但也反照他所处的社会和文化情境”。)
[131]See Oran R.Young,Compliance and Public Authority:A Theory with International Applications,1979,p.4.
[132]See Stewart E.Perry,Notes on the Role of the National:A Social Psychological Concept for the Study of International Relations,in International Politics and Foreign Policy,edited by James N.Rosenau(ed.),1961,pp.87~89.
[133]Christopher Greenwood,Ensuring Compliance with the Law of Armed Conflict,in Control over Compliance with International Law,edited by W.E.Butler(ed.),1991,p.196.
[134]See Jack S.Levy,Political Psychology and Foreign Policy,in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology,p.253.(该文强调个人层面的变量不能提供国家行为合乎逻辑的完整解释。)
[135]Betty Glad,Political Leadership:Some Methodological Considerations,in Political Leadership for the New Century:Personality and Behavior Among American Leaders,edited by Linda O.Valenty&Ofer Feldman(eds.),2002,p.78.
[136]Daniel L.Byman&Kenneth M.Pollack,Let Us Now Praise Great Men:Bringing the Statesman Back in International Security,2001,pp.107~108.部分学者将“个人对战争和外交的决定性影响”边缘化,对“社会科学可以梳理个人所扮演角色的作用”的忽视程度形成了国际关系研究中的一种傲慢态度。
[137]See Fareed Zakaria,From Wealth to Power:The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role,1998,pp.14~18.(该文批评了仅仅根据个人层面的变量难以观察和测量就贬损和低估其在外交决策中作用的研究趋势。)在国际人道法遵守领域缺少实证研究是整个法学研究缺乏引入社会科学方法和观点的缩影。Compare Dennis M.Patterson,The Limits of Empiricism:What Facts Tell Us,Mich.Law Review,2000,p.2738.
[138]Daniel L.Byman&Kenneth M.Pollack,Let Us Now Praise Great Men:Bringing the Statesman Back,International Security,2001,p.108.
[139]“人格”是个体针对一系列内部和环境性刺激作出的独一无二且系统性的认知模式、情感模式和行为模式。Jerrold M.Post,Assessing Leaders at a Distance:The Political Personality Profile,in Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders,edited by Jerrold M.Post(ed.),2003,p.69.尽管人格可以分为不同类型,但个体人格就像指纹一样独一无二并且在长时间的一系列行为中表现特别稳定。See Stewart E.Perry,Notes on the Role of the National:A Social Psychological Concept for the Study of International Relations,in International Politics and Foreign Policy,edited by James N.Rosenau(ed.),1961,p.89.
[140]See,e.g.,James F.Voss&Ellen Dorsey,Perception and International Relations:An Overview,in Political Psychology and Foreign Policy,edited by Eric Singer&Valerie Hudson(eds.),1992,p.256.(该书将个体决策者视为“更像在正式方程式中可有可无的‘随机误差项’”。)
[141]See Lawrence S.Falkowski,Psychological Models and Systemic Outcomes,in Psychological Models in International Politics,edited by Lawrence S.Falkowski(ed.),1979,p.289,p.304.尽管社会和系统性变量对个体决策者施展交互的影响,但人格理论依然从个体出发,向外寻求决策产生的因果进路。
[142]See Leroy N.Rieselbach&George I.Balch,Psychology and Politics,1969,p.6.(该书将“人格”定义为“个体代入行为情境的要素”。)
[143]Richard R.Law,Models of Decision-Making,in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology,edited by David O.Sears et al.(eds.),2003,p.21.(假定每个决策选项都“与每个选项相对应的个体的整套信念相互联系”并且是“每一个决策者所独有的”。)
[144]See John D.Steinbruner,The Cybernetic Theory of Decision:New Dimensions of Political Analysis,1974,pp.138~139.(该文承认决策所倚赖的条件的复杂性和不确定性是理性选择理论无法解释的。)
[145]See Yaacov Y.I.Vertzberger,The World in Their Minds:Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy Decision Making,1990.
[146]See Charles A.Powell et al.,Opening the“Black Box”:Cognition Processing and Optimal Coice in Foreign Policy Decision Making,in New Directions in the Study of Foreign Policy,edited by Charles F.Herman et.al.(eds.),1987,pp.210~211.
[147]See James F.Voss&Ellen Dorsey,Perception and International Relations:An Overview,in Political Psychology and Foreign Policy,edited by Eric Singer&Valerie Hudson(eds.),1992,p.96.
[148]Richard R.,Law,Models of Decision-Making,in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology,edited by David O.Sears et al.(eds.),2003,p.264.
[149]See Daniel Heradstveit,The Arab-Israeli Conflict:Psychological Obstacles to Peace,1979,p.22.
[150]See Charles A.Powell et al.,Opening the“Black Box”:Cognition Processing and Optimal Coice in Foreign Policy Decision Making,in New Directions in the Study of Foreign Policy,pp.206~207.
[151]See generally Richard Nisbett&Lee Ross,Human Inference:Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment,1980.(该文描述了决策者用以简化和扭曲现实情况的程序和方法。)
[152]See Kenneth E.Boulding,National Images and International Systems,3 Journal of Conflict Resort,1959,p.120,p.121.(该文介绍了国际关系中“想象”的含义。)
[153]Ole R.Holsti,Cognitive Dynamics and Images of the Enemy,in Image and Reality in World Politics 16,edited by John C.Farrell&Asa P.Smith(eds.),1967.
[154]See Yaacov Y.I.Vertzberger,The World in Their Minds:Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy Decision Making 22,1990,pp.125~127.
[155]Matin D.Abraranel&Barry Hughes,Public Attitudes and Foreign Polroy Behavior in Western Democracies,in The Analysis of Foreign Policy Outputs,p.46,p.52.
[156]See Yaacov Y.I.Vertzberger,The World in Their Minds:Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy Decision Making 22,1990,pp.123~124.
[157]See Yaacov Y.I.Vertzberger,The World in Their Minds:Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy Decision Making,1990,pp.127~128.
[158]See David G.Winter,Personality and Political Behavior,in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology,p.115.
[159]Stanley A.Renshon,The Comparative Psychoanalytic Study of Poltical Leaders:John McCain and the Limits of Trait Psychology,in Profiling Political Leaders:Cross-Cultural Studies of Personality and Behavior,p.233,p.235.
[160]See Stewart E.Perry,Notes on the Role of the National:A Social Psychological Concept for the Study of International Relations,in International Politics and Foreign Policy,edited by James N.Rosenau(ed.),1961,p.247,p.248.
[161]Christopher C.Joyner,Dissecting the Lawfulness of United States Foreign Policy:Classroom Debates as Pedagogical Devices,9 ILSA Journal of International&Comparative Law,2003,p.333.(“正是政府官员最终决定国家是否、何时、如何以及在何种条件之下遵守或者不遵守特定的国际法。”)
[162]See Yaacov Y.I.Vertzberger,The World in Their Minds:Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy Decision Making,1990,pp.172~176.
[163]Margaret G.Hermann,Introduction:A Statement of Issues,in A Psychological Examination of Political Leaders,edited by Margaret G.Hermann(ed.),1977,p.15,p.44.
[164]See Tom R.Tyler,Why People Obey the Law,1990,pp.38~49.(该书报道了大部分被调查对象对法律执行和司法官员之诚信的尊重、信任和自豪;报道了大部分被调查对象认为法律权威应该得到遵守和尊重,该价值观应该传输给下一代,即使个别案件的当事人个人判断法律权威是错误的。)
[165]See Fred I.Greenstein,The Presidential Difference:Leadership Style from FDR to Clinton,2000,pp.21~23.(该书强调罗斯福总统对自由价值和美国在世界民主制度中的领导地位的极大重视。)
[166]See Steven J.Rubenzer&T.R.Fashingbauer,Testing the Presidents:Personality and Character(s)Among America’s Leaders,2002.
[167]See Conrad Black,Franklin Delano Roosevelt,2003,p.53.
[168]Fred I.Greenstein,The Presidential Difference:Leadership Style from FDR to Clinton,2000,pp.24~25.
[169]See Kenneth S.Davis,FDR,Into the Storm 1937—1940,1993,pp.46~68.(该文讨论了“法院填塞计划”的失败。该项计划本是为了抵制最高法院倾向于共和党的法官对罗斯福新政的合法性的反对。)
[170]Lewis L.Gould,The Modern American Presidency,2003,p.94.
[171]See Robert Smith Thompson,A Time for War,1991,p.112.(该书报道了罗斯福总统在1937年第二任期间阅读职责誓约中“支持美国宪法”的条款时称:“是的,但我所理解的宪法非常灵活,可以解决任何新的问题。”)
[172]Lewis L.Gould,The Modern American Presidency,2003,p.85.
[173]See Conrad Black,Franklin Delano Roosevelt,2003,p.49.(该书注意到罗斯福总统即使面对社会歧视,也对犹太人和其他种族群体非常容忍。)
[174]此外,罗斯福为欧洲提供了几项战前计划——广泛的安全合作和倚赖美国参与的贸易自由化。See Conrad Black,Franklin Delano Roosevelt,2003,pp.515~516.
[175]President Franklin D.Roosevelt,First Inaugural Address,Mar.4,1933,http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos1.htm.
[176]See Conrad Black,Franklin Delano Roosevelt,2003,p.39.
[177]对于美国没有准确预计和阻止珍珠港袭击的综合性探讨,See Roberta Wohlstetter,Pearl Harbor:Warning and Decision,1962,pp.348~401.
[178]See Robert Smith Thompson,A Time for War,1991,pp.369~388.
[179]See generally Roberta Wohlstetter,Pearl Harbor:Warning and Decision,1962,p.348~401.(该书具体阐述了美国没有预计到珍珠港事件的根源性原因。)
[180]See Shimon Peres,Seven Founders of the State of Israel,1968,pp.79~80.(该书将艾希科尔描述为“灵活”“善于妥协”,并坚信“缺乏妥协的生活是不可能继续的”。)
[181]See Shimon Peres,Seven Founders of the State of Israel,1968,p.103.
[182]See Shimon Peres,Seven Founders of the State of Israel,1968,pp.79~80.
[183]See Biography of Levi Eshkel,at http://www.israel.org/mfa/go.asp?MFAH00fr0,Mar.2,2003.
[184]Michael B.Oren,Six Days of War,2002,p.123.
[185]Terence Prittie,Eshkol:The Man and the Nation,1969,p.4.
[186]See Shimon Peres,Seven Founders of the State of Israel,1968,p.80.
[187]See Shimon Peres,Seven Founders of the State of Israel,1968,p.103.(该书提及艾希科尔的笑话,他被认为是一个犹豫不决的人,比如他曾有一格言称:“除非能拖到后天,否则不要拖到明天。”)
[188]Michael B.Oren,Six Days of War,2002,p.89.(该书描述了艾希科尔在1967年5月末几乎情绪崩溃的情况。)
[189]See Shimon Peres,Seven Founders of the State of Israel,1968,p.109.
[190]Special Report of the Secretary-General,U.N.SCOR,22d Sess.,Supp.for Apr.—June 1967,at 2,U.N.Doc.A/6669,1967;Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in the Near East,U.N.SCOR,22d Sess.,Supp.for Apr.—June 1967,U.N.Doc.S/7896,1967.
[191]See Robert H.Forward,Jr.et al,Comment,The Arab-Israeli War and International Law,Harvard International Law Journal,1968,p.232,p.245.(该文叙述埃及关闭水道和将联合国武装驱逐出西奈半岛的法律合理性。)
[192]Nadav Safran,From War to War:The Arab-Israeli Confrontation,1948—1967,1969,p.269.(“任何干扰波斯湾航行自由的行为都构成严重违反国际法的行为,是对其他国家主权的侵犯和对以色列的侵略。”)
[193]关于以色列内部政治军事领导权的斗争的讨论See Terence Prittie,Eshkol:The Man and the Nation,1969,pp.250~259.
[194]See Michael B.Oren,Six Days of War,2002,p.86.(提及以色列国防军总参谋长伊扎克·拉宾在1967年5月末的谈话称:“现在是我们国家生死存亡的时刻。”)
[195]See Michael B.Oren,Six Days of War,2002,p.156.
[196]由以色列的观点看来,六日战争是国家在危机中生存的唯一举措,如果以色列不采取预防性自卫,将遭受毁灭性打击。See Major-General Avraham Tamir,A Soldier in Search of Peace:An inside Look at Israel’s Strategy,1988,p.171.
[197]U.N.SCOR,22d Sess.,1348th mtg.at 14~26,U.N.Doc.S/PV/1348,1967.
[198]See Anthony Clark Arend&Robert J.Beck,International Law and the Use of Force,1993,p.77.(该文提及,俄国和阿拉伯国家认为不论导致首先使用武力的情境为何,只要首先使用武力就是“侵略”的观点非常值得争议。)
[199]Beth M.Polebaum,National Self-Defense in International Law:An Emerging Standard for a Nuclear Age,New York University Law Review,1984,p.187,p.192.(“大部分评论家都认为以色列坚信将在全部边境线上受到攻击,这种判断是合理的。”)See Amos Shapira,The Six-Day War and the Right of Self-Defence,Israel Law Review,1971,p.65,pp.75~76.(判断称以色列面临着即将发生的袭击。)反对观点,See M.Cherif Bassiouni,The“Middle East”:The Misunderstood Conflict,in The Arab-Israeli Conflict Volume II:Readings,edited by John N.Moore(ed.),1974,p.175,pp.195~196.
[200]See Peggy Mann,Golda:The Life of Israel’s Prime Minister,1971,pp.127~128.
[201]See Peggy Mann,Golda:The Life of Israel’s Prime Minister,1971,p.231.
[202]id.(引用了副官对她固执顽强性格的评论。);see id.p.187(提及她对精明的反感。);Ralph G.Martin,Golda Meir:The Romantic Years,29,1988.(报道了果尔达·梅厄的姐姐对她的描述——固执,无法接受恐惧。)
[203]Menahem Meir,My Mother,Golda Meir,12,1983;See Yaacov Y.I.Vertzberger,The World in Their Minds:Information Processing,Cognition,and Perception in Foreign Policy Decision Making,1990,p.174.
[204]See Peggy Mann,Golda:The Life of Israel’s Prime Minister,1971,p.10;see also Ralph G.Martin,Golda Meir:The Romantic Years,1988,p.29.
[205]See Peggy Mann,Golda:The Life of Israel’s Prime Minister,1971,p.231.(“她既有女性的直觉、洞察力、敏感和同情心,又有男性的最佳品质——力量、果断、讲求实用和功利主义。”)
[206]See Peggy Mann,Golda:The Life of Israel’s Prime Minister,1971,p.230.
[207]See Peggy Mann,Golda:The Life of Israel’s Prime Minister,1971,p.223.
[208]See Abraham Rabinovich,The Yom Kippur War,2004,pp.67~70.
[209]Sydney D.Bailey,Four Arab-Israeli Wars and the Peace Process,1990,p.307.
[210]See Abraham Rabinovich,The Yom Kippur War 90,2004,p.89.
[211]Bob Woodward,Bush at War 108,2002.(引用了布什总统在2001年“9·11”事件之后当即发表的演说。)
[212]See Aubrey Immelman,The Politial Personality of U.S.President George W.Bush,in Political Leadership for the New Century:Personality and Behavior Among A-merican Leaders,edited by Linda O.Valenty&Ofer Feldman(eds.),2002,pp.98~99.(提及布什总统“非常享受领导他人和激发他人尊重的权力”。)
[213]Id.(提及布什总统是“反对自省和不愿意认真对待负面情绪,否定人格困难或者使用自我分心掩盖内心冲突”。)
[214]See id.at 90,98~99(把布什总统描述为“容易使人消除敌意,满溢和蔼和富有魅力”。)
[215]See President Discusses Year-End Accomplishments in Cabinet Meeting at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/12/20031211-1.html,Dec.11,2003.
[216]Bob Woodward,Bush at War 108,2002,p.131.(引用了美国外交政策所依据的布什总统的道德普世观念。)
[217]Bob Woodward,Bush at War 108,2002,p.282.
[218]Id.pp.99~101(描述了布什总统“理解他人动机和愿望的敏锐能力”。)
[219]See Aubrey Immelman,The Politial Personality of U.S.President George W.Bush,in Political Leadership for the New Century:Personality and Behavior Among A-merican Leaders,edited by Linda O.Valenty&Ofer Feldman(eds.),2002,p.99.
[220]See Aubrey Immelman,The Politial Personality of U.S.President George W.Bush,in Political Leadership for the New Century:Personality and Behavior among A-merican Leaders,edited by Linda O.Valenty&Ofer Feldman(eds.),2002,pp.95~96.
[221]高估跨国恐怖主义和大规模杀伤性武器扩散带来的威胁的严重程度是不可能的。See Kathleen C.Bailey,Doomsday Weapons in the Hands of Many 6,1991.(该文描述了对美国国家安全最为严重的该项威胁的矛盾情形。)See Colonel Guy B.Roberts,The Counterproliferation Self-Help Paradigm:A Legal Regime for Enforcing the Norm Prohibiting the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction,Denv.Journal of International Law.&Policy,1999,pp.483~484.(“武器扩散带来的大面积破坏是人类面临的最为严重和漫长的对国际安全的威胁最严重和漫长的威胁。”)
[222]See National Security Strategy of the United States of America[“NSSUSA”]1,at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf,Sept.17,2002;see also David E.Sanger,Bush Renews Pledge To Strike First To Counter Terror Threats,N.Y.Times,Jul.20,2002,at A3.(报道了布什总统在阿富汗对美军的演讲,他称美国将对发展大规模杀伤性武器的国家实施先发制人的打击,“美国必须在这些恐怖威胁成型之前就予以还击”。)
[223]See George W.Bush,U.N.General Assembly in New York City Address,Sept.12,2002,38 Wkly Compilation Presidential Documents,Sep.16,2002.
[224]See S.C.Res.687,U.N.SCOR,2981st mtg.Apr.3,1991,S/RES/687,ILM 846,1991.
[225]S.C.Res.1441,U.N.SCOR,4644th mtg.Nov.8,2002,S/RES/1441,42 ILM 250,2003.at para.2.
[226]S.C.Res.1441,U.N.SCOR,4644th mtg.Nov.8,2002,S/RES/1441,42 ILM 250,2003.at para.3~4.
[227]如果美国寻求额外的权威性决议,在安理会就没有充分的票数。See Tom J.Farer,The Prospect for International Law and Order in the Wake of Iraq,97 American Journal of International Law,2003,p.621.(该文指出安理会中赞成票不足九票。)法国、俄国和德国坚持认为,根据初始授权的理论,如果687号决议在1991年到2003年之间已经到期,1441号决议又没有特别规定额外的授权,就需要新的决议予以额外授权。See John Yoo,International Law and the War in Iraq,American Journal of International Law,2003,p.563.安理会的瘫痪实际上是法、德、俄三国坚持要求额外授权造成的。如果根据1441号决议武装进入伊拉克一定会遭到这三巨头的否决。美国拒绝了该项提议并寻求其他的授权途径。See Ruth Wedgwood,The Fall of Saddam Hussein:Security Council Mandates and Preemptive Self-Defense,97 American Journal of International Law,2003,p.500.
[228]George W.Bush,Addressto the Nation on Iraq,Mar.17,2003,39Wkly Compilation Presidential Documents,p.338,340,Mar.24,2003.
[229]在阐述入侵伊拉克的讲话中,布什总统宣称:“联合国安理会没有尽责,因此我们挺身而出。”Bob Woodward,Bush at War 108,2002,p.354.
[230]Richard Falk,What Future for the U.N.Charter System of War Prevention?A-merican Journal of International Law,2003,p.590,p.592.
[231]See John Yoo,International Law and the War in Iraq,American Journal of International Law,2003,p.574.(该文的结论认为伊拉克无法按要求销毁大规模杀伤性武器、他过去被证明使用过大规模杀伤性武器以及支持恐怖主义,这些原因综合起来使入侵成为“自卫性”的措施。)Jane Stromseth,Law and Force After Iraq:A Transitional Moment,American Journal of International Law,2003,pp.628~629.(将该行为定性为“合理措施”。)
[232]See Tom J.Farer,The Prospect for International Law and Order in the Wake of Iraq,97 American Journal of International Law,2003,p.6.
[233]See Anne-Marie Slaughter&William Burke-White,An International Constitutional Moment,43 Harvard International Law Journal,2001,p.43.(“正如在1945年,今天的世界各国正面临着国际宪法性的时刻。”)
[234]Richard Falk,What Future for the U.N.Charter System of War Prevention?A-merican Journal of International Law,2003.p.97.