外交政策不确定时期新闻媒体的作用分析

(五)外交政策不确定时期新闻媒体的作用分析

新闻媒体的影响在政策不确定时期更具显性特征,其对时政多采取批评态度,并同情政策波及对象。因此,如果新闻媒体在干涉索马里的决策过程中具有推动作用,那么在政策不确定时期,媒体报道中就应该有大量批评时政、同情导向的用语。

11月25日前,亦即提供地面部队支援的决策出台之前,美国对索马里政策还未确定,还没有作出干涉的决策。虽然从理论上说决策者在这段政策不确定时期会受媒体影响,但事实是媒体此间极少关注索马里。《华盛顿邮报》和《纽约时报》两报合计对索马里的日报道量是0.76篇,而且索马里消息也只在头版出现过两次。在这整整21天的时间里,CBS给予索马里的关注也只有可怜的3分钟时间。这段时间虽然有些报道有同情导向,但很难想象这样的报道力度会“鼓动全国公共机构的良知”[193]或者“制造供养索马里的政治呼声”[194]。平均每天九秒钟的电视新闻和报纸上不知刊载在哪个角落的平均每天不到一篇报道的力度也不可能驱使决策者采取行动。当然,前文曾提到白宫发言人菲茨沃特称新闻媒体报道使决策者“忍无可忍”,以至于无法忍受“看着电视吃晚饭”[195],对媒体报道的内容分析结果明显与之有出入。值得注意的是,其他参与决策制定的决策者对媒体报道对决策的影响也并没有深刻印象。副国务卿弗兰克·威斯纳(Frank Wisener)不“记得媒体压力在决策会议过程中成为问题”,并指出“我们绝少对新闻压力做反应,而更多的是对实际局势作出反应”。助理国务卿罗伯特·加卢齐也不记得此间媒体报道无论在数量上还是质量上有何建树。他认为,干涉索马里决策不是媒体报道助推决策者行动的案例。同样,助理国务卿阿诺德·坎特(Arnold Kanter)也不记得有任何“紧急的媒体事件”导致决策者作出干涉的决策。[196]总之,媒体对索马里饥民的大量关注在派兵索马里决策制定过程中并非要素。新闻记者们对国务院向索马里空投物资进行支援的信息的置若罔闻,也进一步说明这个问题。对新闻发布会情况的分析可以看出,新闻媒体报道并没有将政府官员的注意力引向索马里,反而是新闻发言人在试图鼓励媒体关注索马里。

综上,索马里个案研究表明,媒体对索马里的大量关注是在布什决定向联合国提供地面部队支援,政策确定性不断升级的情况下发生的。布什的派兵决策一曝光,媒体报道急剧增加。12月4日,联合国安理会批准重塑希望行动。在此后政策确定的时期中,美国政府开始通过总统声明和一系列新闻发布会竭力宣传干涉政策。媒体报道的力度与政府举措交相辉映,在此期间对索马里的广播和报纸报道大幅增加。但媒体报道也没有简单地追踪官方议程。媒体也以自己的方式发挥其新闻导向作用。媒体没有挑战官方政策,甚至刻意均衡地报道对干涉的支持和反对的声音,媒体导向基本支持布什的决策。通过同情索马里人民的遭遇,选择强调干涉决策积极层面的因素,而不是强调潜在的问题,媒体制造了支持布什干涉政策、边缘化华府反对声音的媒体大环境。因而,研究证明,媒体报道没有促使布什政府作出干涉索马里的决策,而是在实际效果上为干涉政策构造了支持决策的环境。媒体在索马里个案中发挥的作用更确切地说是制造共识或标引作用,而不是CNN效应。

对事件前后新闻报道的内容分析表明,许多报道的确提倡干涉。最值得注意的是《纽约时报》公开呼吁美国干涉索马里以避免饥荒蔓延的两篇编者按。毫无疑问,至少部分参与决策制定的决策人读到了这类文章,部分也看到了电视新闻中对索马里危机的简短报道。因此,新闻媒体的报道有可能在决策者考量是否作出举动时对其有影响。尽管明显有夸大相关新闻数量的嫌疑,但无论是马林·菲茨沃特还是布什总统都在回忆时明确认为媒体报道促使他们行动。以下两点说明新闻媒体有影响,只是影响有限。

第一,相对其他影响决策的因素而言,媒体报道影响有限。如前所述,参议员保罗·西蒙、南希·卡斯鲍姆和哈里斯·沃福德在布什召集跨部门会议前十天就不断游说。救援组织也陈书请求布什政府出手相助的同时,美国国际发展署官员弗雷迪·坎尼更亲自向决策者面呈干预请求。因此,无论是国会还是援助机构等利益集团都力争推动布什政府给予更大力度的干预。而国内和决策机构内部政治压力之外,还有联合国秘书长也努力争取美国干预索马里。

第二,美国政府早在干涉决策出台前一年半就一直不断对索马里危机作出各种反应。1991年3月,助理国务卿赫尔曼·科恩(Herman Cohen)宣布索马里陷入内战危机,1992年8月,布什命令空投大量救灾物资,这项行动直到11月正式干预政策出台前一直没有间断过。布什政府在考虑军事干预索马里之前已经致力于对索马里危机的救助。如此看来,几篇媒体报道最多只是极有限地影响了决策过程。当然,布什总统个人回忆说一天观看晚间新闻报道促使他下令干涉索马里的说法显然有些言过其实。诚然,没有上述多方呼吁干涉的压力,没有布什政府对索马里危机已有的关注和前期投入,新闻媒体凭一己之力是不可能迫使决策者举兵索马里的。决策者完全可以无视数量不多的媒体报道,正如其对待偶尔引起美国媒体关注的其他无关痛痒的国家地区的战乱和危机一样。媒体报道影响发挥到极致,也是间接地影响决策,促使举棋未定的决策者采取行动,而不可能成为影响决策的重大影响因素。国会和利益集团的游说,加上已有的政策倾斜,是直接促使决策者干预的主要因素。

媒体对决策者形成的压力和影响极为有限。在国会、利益集团、媒体几方面压力下,决策者的不作为是否会导致负面公众形象?干涉决策会否为决策者赢得媒体正面报道,以赢得政治资本?布什作出干涉决策之时,已然在总统大选中败给了克林顿,因此干涉索马里不会为其赚取任何政治回报。有学者推测,布什干涉索马里是得以体面卸任之举。[197]但为了赢得媒体青睐而动辄向胜败难料、前途未卜的索马里遣兵近三万之举实属冒险,决策者但凡考虑到美军在索马里遭受伤亡而可能在国内轩然引起的负面新闻报道,都不会只为博得媒体欢心贸然行事。因此,促使决策者最后作出干涉决策的因素更多地来自国会和利益集团的压力。

媒体报道知会公众、为公众提供必要的及时局势及背景知识,为决策者政策的推行和获得国内选民支持营造了有利的舆论环境。媒体对索马里局势的报道,对是否干涉、如何救助索马里危机的讨论为决策者作出干涉决策准备了舆论基础。当然这一影响并非来自1992年11月媒体并不强大的报道攻势。助理国务卿弗兰克·威斯纳回忆说,他那时知道记者当中普遍对索马里局势“深表同情”。他说:“我认为这对决策并没有什么影响……其真正作用是在美国公众当中产生了提供舆论条件的影响……CNN效应为美国公众支持干涉准备了条件。”[198]助理国务卿阿诺德·坎特也指出:“在为推行干涉政策所做的准备中,生动的电视画面已经为我们的工作打好了基础。”有人指责布什政府没有为干涉政策做宣传准备工作,一位官员辩驳说:“援助索马里人民的公众呼声已经四起。”这也说明决策者们深知舆论对干涉的支持态度。[199]

总之,向索马里驱兵两万八的决策并非美国媒体对当地饥荒报道引起的。实际上,直到布什宣布派兵政策之前,媒体从未集中关注过索马里局势。援助救援机构和国会的救援呼声,加上布什总统个人以及政策延续性的考虑是决策的主要动力。与此同时不可否认的是,媒体对决策具有间接的影响,具体体现为:媒体报道有可能促使某些决策参与者行动起来。其更突出的作用体现在为决策准备有利的舆论环境上。决策者在知晓媒体记者和公众普遍对索马里危机表示同情的前提下,得以毫不犹豫、信心十足地作出干涉决策,因其了解其政策已具备舆论基础,易于推行并获得公众支持。一旦决策出台,媒体积极响应支持干涉的报道和解释框架无疑为重塑希望行动赢得了公众支持。因此,媒体在索马里个案中起到的作用是支持而并非压力。

【注释】

[1]Entman,Projections of Power:Framing News,Public Opinion,and US.Foreign Policy.Chicago:Univ.Chicago Press,2003.

[2]“认知吝啬鬼”是社会认知学家苏珊·菲斯克(SusanT.Fiske)和谢利·泰勒(Shelley E.Taylor)1984年提出的概念,指人们总是竭力节省认知能量,依靠直觉或极少量的信息来判断问题的认知惰性。

[3]Entman,Robert M.Projections of Power:Framing News,Public Opinion,and US.Foreign Policy.Chicago:Univ.Chicago Press,2003,p.13.

[4]Powlick,Philip J.and Katz,AndrewZ.“Defining the American public opinion/foreign policy nexus.”International Studies Review.Vol.42,No.1,1998:pp.29-61.

[5]Baum,Matthew A.and Philip B.K.Potter.“The Relationships Between Mass Media,Public Opinion,and Foreign Policy:Toward a Theoretical Synthesis”,Annual Review of Political Science.Vol.11,2008:pp.42-43.

[6]Baum,Matthew A.and Philip B.K.Potter.“The Relationships Between Mass Media,Public Opinion,and Foreign Policy:Toward a Theoretical Synthesis”,Annual Review of Political Science.Vol.11,2008:p.56.

[7]Baum,Matthew A.and Philip B.K.Potter.“The Relationships Between Mass Media,Public Opinion,and Foreign Policy:Toward a Theoretical Synthesis”,Annual Review of Political Science.Vol.11,2008:p.56.

[8]如Key,V.O.Jr.Public Opinion and American Democracy.New York:Knopf,1961;Rosenau,James N.Public Opinion and Foreign Policy.New York:Random House,1961;Zaller,John.“Positive Constructs of Public Opinion.”Critical Studies in Mass Communication.Vol.11,No.3(1994):pp.276-87.

[9]Weingast,Barry R.“The Congressional-Bureaucratic System:A Principal Agent Perspective(With Applications to the SEC).”Public Choice.Vol.44,No.1,1984:pp.147-191.

[10]Baum,Matthew A.and Philip B.K.Potter.“The Relationships Between Mass Media,Public Opinion,and Foreign Policy:Toward a Theoretical Synthesis”,Annual Review of Political Science.Vol.11,2008:pp.55-56.

[11]Baum,Matthew A.and Philip B.K.Potter.“The Relationships Between Mass Media,Public Opinion,and Foreign Policy:Toward a Theoretical Synthesis”,Annual Review of Political Science.Vol.11,2008:p.54.

[12]Jacobson,Peter Viggo.“Focus on the CNN Effect Misses the Point:The Real Media Impact on Conflict Mangaement is Invisible and Indirect.”Journal of Peace Research.Vol.37,No.2,2000:p.133.

[13]Jacobsen,Peter Viggo.“National Interest,Humanitarianism or CNN:What Triggers UN Peace Enforcement After the Cold War?”Journal of Peace Research.Vol.33(1996):p.206.

[14]Jacobson,Peter Viggo.“Focus on the CNN Effect Misses the Point:The Real Media Impact on Conflict Mangaement is Invisible and Indirect.”Journal of Peace Research.Vol.37,No.2,2000:p.133.

[15]Hass,Richard.Intervention:The Use of American Military Force in the Post-Cold War World Carnegie Endowment Book,1994.

[16]该表见于Livingston,Steven.“Clarifying the CNN Effect:An Examination ofCNN Efects According to Type of Military Intervention.”Research Paper,C-18.Cambridge,Mass.:Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press,Politics and Public Policy,John F.Kennedy School of Government,Harvard University,1997:p.11.

[17]Hoge,James.“Media Pervasiveness.”Foreign Affairs.July/August 1994:p.137.

[18]Livingston,Steven.“Clarifying the CNN Effect:An Examination of CNN Effects According to Type of Military Intervention.”Research Paper,C-18.Cambridge,Mass.:Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press,Politics and Public Policy,John F.Kennedy School of Government,Harvard University,1997:pp.11-12.

[19]Livingston,Steven.“Clarifying the CNN Effect:An Examination of CNN Effects According to Type of Military Intervention.”Research Paper,C-18.Cambridge,Mass.:Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press,Politics and Public Policy,John F.Kennedy School of Government,Harvard University,1997:p.4.

[20]Freedman,Lawrence.“Victims and Victors:Reflections on the Kosovo War.”Review of International Studies.Vol.26,No.3(2000):pp.335-358.

[21]Jacobson,Peter V.“National Interest,Humanitarianism or CNN:What Triggers UN Peace Enforcement After the Cold War?”Journal of Peace Research.Vol.33,No.2(1996):pp.205-215.

[22]Hoge,James.“Media Pervasiveness.”Foreign Affairs.July/August 1994:p.143.

[23]Freedman,Lawrence.“Victims and Victors:Reflections on the Kosovo War.”Review of International Studies.Vol.26,No.3(2000):p.351.

[24]Lafferty,Brad.;Strednansky,Susan E.;Haywood,James E.;Monteith,Clada A.;Klincar,Thomas D.“The Impact of Media Information on Enemy Effectiveness:A Model for Conflict.”Proteus,A Journal of Ideas,1994:pp.1-41.

[25]Livingston,Steven.“Clarifying the CNN Effect:An Examination of CNN Effects According to Type of Military Intervention.”Research Paper,C-18.Cambridge,Mass.:Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press,Politics and Public Policy,John F.Kennedy School of Government,Harvard University,1997:p.7.

[26]Livingston,Steven and Todd Eachus.“Humanitarian Crises and U.S.Foreign Policy:Somalia and the CNN Effect Reconsidered.”Political Communication.Vol.12,No.4(1995):p.428.

[27]Cobb,Roger,Jennie Keith Ross,and Marc Howard Ross.“Agenda Building as a Comparative Political Process.”American Political Science Review,Vol.70(1976):pp.126-138;Cobb,Roger,Ch.Elder.“The Politics of Agenda-Building.”Journal of Politics,1971:pp.892-915.转引自Habermas,Jürgen.Between Facts and Norms:Contributions toaDiscourse Theory of Law and Democracy.Translated by William Rehg.MA:MIT Press,1996,p.379.

[28]Habermas,Jürgen.Between Facts and Norms:ContributionstDaDiscourse Theory of Law and Democracy.Translated by William Rehg.MA:MIT Press,1996,p.379.

[29]Cobb,Roger,Jennie Keith Ross,and Marc Howard Ross.“Agenda Building as a Comparative Political Process.”American Political Science Review,Vol.70(1976):p.132.转引自Habermas,Jürgen.Between Facts and Norms:Contributions toaDiscourse Theory of Law and Democracy.Translated by William Rehg.MA:MIT Press,1996,pp.379-380.

[30]Habermas,Jürgen.Between Facts and Norms:Contributions toaDiscourse Theory ofLaw and Democracy.Translated by William Rehg.MA:MIT Press,1996,pp.380-381.

[31](德)哈贝马斯著,童世骏译:《在事实与规范之间:关于法律和民主法治国的商谈理论》,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店,2003年版,第451页。

[32](德)哈贝马斯著,童世骏译:《在事实与规范之间:关于法律和民主法治国的商谈理论》,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店,2003年版,第446页。

[33](德)哈贝马斯著,童世骏译:《在事实与规范之间:关于法律和民主法治国的商谈理论》,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店,2003年版,第450页。

[34](德)哈贝马斯著,童世骏译:《在事实与规范之间:关于法律和民主法治国的商谈理论》,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店,2003年版,第445页。

[35]Almond,Gabrial A.The American People and Foreign Policy.New York:Harcourt Brace and Jonanovick,1950.

[36]Graber,Doris A.Mass Media and American Politics.Washington,DC:CQ Press,2002.

[37]Gurevitch,Michael著有Culture,Society and the Media.New York:Methuen,1982.

[38]Gurevitch,Michael and Jay Blumler.“Political Communication Systems and Democratic Values.”In Judith Lichtenberg ed.Democracy and the Mass Media,Cambridge,MA.:Cambridge University Press,1990,p.270.转引自Habermas,Jürgen.Between Facts and Norms:Contributions to aDiscourse Theory of Law and Democracy.Translated by William Rehg.MA:MIT Press,1996,p.378.

[39]Habermas,Jürgen.Between Facts and Norms:Contributions toaDiscourse Theory of Law and Democracy.Translated by William Rehg.MA:MIT Press,1996,pp.378-379.

[40]Baum,Matthew A.and Philip B.K.Potter.“The Relationships Between Mass Media,Public Opinion,and Foreign Policy:Toward a Theoretical Synthesis”,Annual Review of Political Science.Vol.11,2008:p.55.

[41]Chang,Tsa Kuo.The Press and China Policy:The Illusion of Sino-American Relations,1950-1984.Norwood,NJ:Ablex,1993,p.15.

[42]Plischke,Elmer.Conduct of American Diplomacy.Princeton,NJ:D.Van Nostrand,1967,p.67.

[43]Plischke,Elmer.Conduct of American Diplomacy.Princeton,NJ:D.Van Nostrand,1967,pp.67-69.

[44]Plischke,Elmer.Conduct of American Diplomacy.Princeton,NJ:D.Van Nostrand,1967,p.81.

[45]见PEW Research Center for the People and the Press.“Newspapers Face a Challenging Calculus.”Feburary 26,2009.http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1133/decline-print-newspapers-increased-online-news

[46]Gowing,Nik.“Real-time Television Coverage of Armed Conflicts and Diplomatic Crises:Does it Pressure or Distort Foreign Policy Decisions?”,Harvard Working Paper.Cambridge,MA:The Joan Shorenstein Barone Center on the Press,Politics and Public Policy,Harvard University,1994,pp.85-86.

[47]Shaw,Martin.Civil Society and Mediain Global Crises.London:St Martin's Press,1996,p.181.

[48]Strobel,Warren P.Late Breaking Foreign Policy:The News Media's Influence on Peace Operations.Washington D.C.,WA:United States Institute of Peace,1997,p.219.

[49]Hilsman,Roger.The Politics of Policy Making in Defense and Foreign Affairs.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1987,p.82.

[50]Hilsman,Roger.The Politics of Policy Making in Defense and Foreign Affairs.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1987,pp.82-83.

[51]Hilsman,Roger.The Politics of Policy Making in Defense and Foreign Affairs.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1987,pp.82-83.

[52]George,Alexander.Presidential Decision Making in Foreign Policy:The Effective Use of Information.Boulder,CO:Westview Press,1980,p.11.

[53]George,Alexander.Presidential Decision Making in Foreign Policy:The Effective Use of Information.Boulder,CO:Westview Press,1980,p.114.

[54]Robinson,Piers.“Theorizing the Influence of Media on World Politics:Models of Media Influence on Foreign Policy”.European Journal of Communication,Vol.16,No.4,2001:pp.534-535.

[55]Robinson,Piers.“Theorizing the Influence of Media on World Politics:Models of Media Influence on Foreign Policy”.European Journal of Communication,Vol.16,No.4,2001:p.525.

[56]Allen,Cleo Joffrion.“Foreign News Coverage in Selected U.S.Newspapers 1927-1997:A Content Analysis.”Dissertation.Louisiana State University,2005.

[57]Tumulty,Joseph.Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him.New York:Doubleday and Company,1921.p.341.

[58]“Woodrow Wilson's Steel Box”,The New York Times,Jan 1,1922.

[59]“Publicity at Paris”,The New York Times,Apr 2,1922.

[60]Bell,Herbert C.F.,Woodrow Wilson,and K.C.Fang.Woodrow Wilson and the people.Taipei:China Culture Publishing Foundation,1960,p.284.

[61](英)华尔脱斯著,汉敖、宁京译:《国际联盟史》(上卷),北京:商务印书馆,1964年版,第39页。

[62]“Call on America to Indorse League”,The New York Times,Feb 5,1919.

[63]Floto,Inga.Colonel House in Paris:AStudy of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference 1919.Princeton,NJ:University Press,1980,p.135.

[64]Powell,Lyman P.and Fred B.Hodgins.America and The League of Nations:Addresses in Europe.Chicago:Rand McNally and Company,1919,p.181.

[65]Floto,Inga.Colonel House in Paris:A Study of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference1919.Princeton,NJ:University Press,1980,p.147.

[66]Floto,Inga.Colonel House in Paris:A Study of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference 1919.Princeton,NJ:University Press,1980,p.135.

[67]Fleming,Denna Frank.The United States and the League of Nations 1918-1920.New York:G.P.Putnams'Sons,1932,p.173.

[68]Floto,Inga.Colonel House in Paris:A Study of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference1919.Princeton,NJ:University Press,1980,p.136.

[69]Tumulty to Wilson 13.3.19,Wilson,Woodrow and Arthur S.Link.The Papers of Woodrow Wilson,Vol.53-67.Ser.5A.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1996.

[70]Tumulty,Joseph P.Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him.La Vergne,TN:Lighting Source Inc.,2004,p.520.

[71]Lansing,Robert.Peace Negotiations:A Personal Narrative.London:Constable and Company LTD,1921,p.156

[72]Tumulty,Joseph P.Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him.La Vergne,TN:Lighting Source Inc.,2004,p.524.

[73]Ammission to Compub 27.3.19,Link,Arthur S.The Papers of Woodrow Wilson,Vol.53-67.Ser.5A.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1996.

[74]“Wilson's Cablegrams From Paris”,The New York Times,Nov 27,1921.

[75]“Wilson Continues Firm”,The New York Times,Jul.24,1919.

[76]“Wilson Calls His Tour a Report to People”,The New York Times,Sept.5,1919.

[77]Holsti,Ole R.Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy,Ann Arbor,MI:University of Michigan Press,1996,p.7.

[78]“Publicity at Paris”,The New York Times,Apr 2,1922.

[79]“Carson Fears Trap in League ofPeace”,The New York Times,Feb 18,1918.

[80]“Carson Fears Trap in League of Peace”,The New York Times,Feb 18,1918.

[81]“Pope Hopes for Foundation of League of Nations;Invokes Divine Help for Wilson in Peace Mission”,The New York Times,Jan 12,1919.

[82]“The Demand for a League ofNations”,The New York Times,Mar 9,1919.

[83]“Borah Ridicules League ofNations”,The New York Times,Dec 7,1918.

[84]“Wickersham Raises Issue”,The New York Times,Nov 27,1918.

[85]邓蜀生:《伍德罗威尔逊》,上海:上海人民出版社,1982年版,第190页。

[86]Bell,Herbert C.F.,Woodrow Wilson,and K.C.Fang.Woodrow Wilson and the people.Taipei:China Culture Publishing Foundation,1960,p.325-326.

[87]“Placing the Responsibility for Defeat of the Treaty”,The New York Times,Apr 4,1920.

[88]Creel,George.The War,the World and Wilson,New York:Harper & Brother Publishers,1920.

[89]Lodge,Henry Cabot.The Senate and the League of Nations.Charles Scribner's Sons,1925.

[90]Lansing,Robert.Peace Negotiations:A Personal Narrative.London:Constable and Company LTD,1921.

[91]“Light Wines,Beer and Local Option”,The Pittsburgh Courier,Jun 23,1923.

[92]Pollard,James E.The Presidents and the Press.New York:The MacMillan Company,1947,p.684.

[93]“Wilson's Views on League”,The New York Times,Dec 19,1918.

[94]“Wilson Ideas Win”,The New York Times,Dec 21,1918.

[95]“China Sends Wilson Pledge of Support”,The New York Times,Jan 5,1919.1919.1.5.(https://www.daowen.com)

[96]“British Divided on Wilson's Move”,The New York Times,Apr.26,1919.

[97]“Publicity at Paris”,The New York Times,Apr2,1922.

[98]范士明:《美国新闻媒体的国际报道及其舆论影响》,《当代世界与社会主义》2000年第4期。

[99]“Roosevelt Defined a League ofNations”,The New York Times,Jan.14,1919.

[100]“Taft Says Peace Depends on League”,The New York Times,Feb.6,1919.

[101]“Reed Assails Plan for League of Nations”,The New York Times,Nov.22,1918.

[102]“Carson Fears Trap in League ofPeace”,The New York Times,Feb.18,1918.

[103]“Letters From the People:the League ofNations”,The Harford Courant,Apr 19,1919.

[104]“Episcopals,oyt”,Chicago Daily Tribune,Sep30,1919.

[105]“Letters to the Times on War Subjects”,The New York Times,Oct.27,1918.

[106]“The Demand for a League ofNations”,The New York Times,Mar.9,1919.

[107](英)华尔脱斯著,汉敖、宁京译:《国际联盟史》(上卷),北京:商务印书馆,1964年版,第26页。

[108]Seymour,Charles ed.,The Intimate Papers of Colonel House arranged asa narrative.New York:Houghton Miflin,1926-1928.Vol.Ⅲ.p.354.

[109]“A League of Nations”,The Washington Post.Jun 23,1918.

[110]“A Function for the League of Nations”,The Manchester Guardian,Sep 11,1918.

[111]“League of nations Believed Nearer”,The New York Times,Sep 29,1918.

[112]“League ofnations Believed Nearer”,The New York Times,Sep 29,1918.

[113]“Wilson Ideal Wins”,The New York Times,Dec 21,1918.

[114]“Wilson Winning by Earnestness”,The New York Times,Feb 3,1919.

[115]“Borah Ridicules League ofNations”,The New York Times,Dec 7,1918.

[116]“Reed Assails Plan for League of Nations”,The New York Times,Nov.22,1918.

[117]Floto,Inga.Colonel House in Paris:A Study of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference 1919.Princeton,NJ:University Press,1980,p.135.

[118]Lodge,Henry Cabot.The Senate and the League of Nations.Charles Scribner's Sons,1925.p.146-147.

[119]Floto,Inga.Colonel House in Paris:A Study of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference 1919.Princeton,NJ:University Press,1980,p.147.

[120]Bailey,Thomas F.Wilson and the Peacemakers:Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal.New York:The MacMillan Company,1947,p.203-205.

[121]“League Critics Confident after Counting Noses”,The New York Times,Jul.14,1919.

[122]“Hisses For Wilson in Carnegie Hall”,The New York Times,Jun.29,1919.

[123]“Italians Cable to Wilson.Irredentists Say Faith in League ofNations Has Been Impaired”,The New York Times,May.7,1919.

[124]“A League of Nations”,The Washington Post.Jun 23,1918.

[125]Bell,Herbert C.F.,Woodrow Wilson,and K.C.Fang.Woodrow Wilson and the people.Taipei:China Culture Publishing Foundation,1960,p.327.

[126]Bell,Herbert C.F.,Woodrow Wilson,and K.C.Fang.Woodrow Wilson and the people.Taipei:China Culture Publishing Foundation,1960,p.327.

[127](美)斯隆编,刘琛、戴江雯、苏曼等译:《美国传媒史》,上海:上海人民出版社,2010年版,第470页。

[128](英)华尔脱斯著,汉敖、宁京译:《国际联盟史》(上卷),北京:商务印书馆,1964年版,第81页。

[129]“Aged Woman Voter Fears War's Unrest”,The New York Times,Sep.1,1919.

[130]“Want treaty now,full action later”,The New York Times,Mar 30,1920.

[131]“Full Text of the Proposed Treaty of Peace,As Drawn by the Conference at Paris,and Issued by the United States Senate”,The New York Times,Jun.10,1919.

[132]“Full Text of the President's Discussion With the Foreign Relations Committee”,The New York Times,Aug.20,1918.

[133]“Letters From the People:the League of Nations”,The Harford Courant,Apr 19,1919.

[134]“Aged Woman Voter Fears War's Unrest”,The New York Times,Sep.1,1919.

[135]Cohen,Bernard C.The Press and Foreign Policy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1963,p.99.

[136](美)帕雷兹著,宋韵雅、王璐菲译:《美国政治中的媒体:内容和影响》,南京:南京大学出版社,2010年版,第173页。

[137]“Light Wines,Beer and Local Option”,The Pittsburgh Courier,Jun 23,1923.

[138]“Reed Assails Plan for League ofNations”,The New York Times,Nov.22,1918.

[139]“Borah Ridicules League ofNations”,The New York Times,Dec.7,1918.

[140]Bell,Herbert C.F.,Woodrow Wilson,and K.C.Fang.Woodrow Wilson and the people.Taipei:China Culture Publishing Foundation,1960,p.323.

[141]“Voice ofthe People”,Chicago Daily Tribune,May 13,1919.

[142]“Voice of the People”,Chicago Daily Tribune,Sep 13,1919.

[143](美)斯隆编,刘琛、戴江雯、苏曼等译:《美国传媒史》,上海:上海人民出版社,2010年版,第326页。

[144](美)斯隆编,刘琛、戴江雯、苏曼等译:《美国传媒史》,上海:上海人民出版社,2010年版,第102页。

[145]“League of Nations Believed Nearer”,The New York Times,Sep.29,1918.

[146]“ForA League ofNations”,TheNew York Times,Nov 17,1918.

[147]“Business Men Pledged to League to Nations”,The New York Times,Feb 5,1919.

[148]Floto,Inga.Colonel House in Paris:A Study of American Policy at the Paris Peace Conference 1919.Princeton,NJ:University Press,1980,p.143.

[149]Creel,George.The War,the World and Wilson,New York:Harper & Brother Publishers,1920,p.332.

[150]Senate Doc.106,66th Congress,1st Session,p.1276.

[151]Pollard,James E.The Presidents and the Press.New York:The MacMillan Company,1947,p.635

[152]“Wilson's Fight on Secrecy”,The New York Times,Apr 9,1922.

[153]“Wilson's Fight on Secrecy”,The New York Times,Apr 9,1922.

[154]美国对外文件集United States Department of State/Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,The Paris Peace Conference,1919.http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=turn&entity=FRUS.FRUS1919Parisv03.p0610&id=FRUS.FRUS1919Parisv03&isize=M&q1=press&q2=public%20opinion&q3=league%20of%20nations

[155]Pollard,James E.The Presidents and the Press.New York:The MacMillan Company,1947,p.697.

[156]美国对外文件集United States Department of State/Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,The Paris Peace Conference,1919.http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=turn&entity=FRUS.FRUS1919Parisv05.p0439&id=FRUS.FRUS1919Parisv05&isize=M

[157]Lansing,Robert.Peace Negotiations:A Personal Narrative.London:Constable and Company LTD,1921,p.101-102.

[158]Pollard,James E.The Presidents and the Press.New York:The MacMillan Company,1947,p.690.

[159]Cusimano,Maryann K.“Operation Restore Hope:The Bush Administration's Decision to Intervene in Somalia.”Pew Case Studies in International Affairs,Washington D.C.,WA:The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy,1995,p.2.

[160]Livingston,Steven and Todd Eachus.“Humanitarian Crises and US Foreign Policy.”Political Communication,Vol.12,No.4(1995):pp.422-426.

[161]Livingston,Steven and Todd Eachus.“Humanitarian Crises and US Foreign Policy.”Political Communication,Vol.12,No.4(1995):p.419.

[162]Oberdorfer,Don.“The Path to Intervention:A Massive Tragedy‘We Could Do Something About’.”Washington Post,December 6,1992.

[163]Schraeder,Peter J.United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa:Incrementalism,Crisis and Change.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1994,p.177.

[164]Livingston,Steven and Todd Eachus.“Humanitarian Crises and US Foreign Policy.”Political Communication,Vol.12,No.4(1995):p.423.

[165]Mermin,Jonathan.“Television News and American Intervention in Somalia:The Myth of a Media Driven Foreign Policy.”Political Science Quarterly.Vol.112,No.3(1997):p.400.

[166]Cusimano,Maryann K.Operation Restore Hope:The Bush Administration's Decision to Intervene in Somalia.Pew Case Studies in International Affairs,Washingtong D.C,WA:The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy,1995,p.6.

[167]Mermin,Jonathan.“Television News and American Intervention in Somalia:The Myth of a Media Driven Foreign Policy.”Political Science Quarterly.Vol.112,No.3(1997):p.400.

[168]Oberdorfer,Don.“The Path to Intervention:A Massive Tragedy‘We Could Do Something About’.”Washington Post,December 6,1992.

[169]Oberdorfer,Don.“The Path to Intervention:A Massive Tragedy‘We Could Do Something About’.”Washington Post,December 6,1992.

[170]Mermin,Jonathan.“Television News and American Intervention in Somalia:The Myth of a Media Driven Foreign Policy.”Political Science Quarterly.Vol.112,No.3(1997):p.401.

[171]Gelb,Leslie H.“Shoot to Feed Somalia.”New York Times,November 19,1992.

[172]Cusimano,Maryann K.Operation Restore Hope:The Bush Administration's Decision to Intervene in Somalia.Pew Case Studies in International Affairs,Washington D.C.,WA:The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy,1995,p.7.

[173]戴维·杰里迈亚(David E.Jeremiah),第16任美国总统国家安全顾问,时任参谋长联度会议副主席

[174]Oberdorfer,Don.“The Path to Intervention:A Massive Tragedy‘We Could Do Something About’.”Washington Post,December 6,1992.

[175]Cusimano,Maryann K.Operation Restore Hope:The Bush Administration's Decision to Intervene in Somalia.Pew Case Studies in International Affairs,Washington D.C.,WA:The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy,1995,p.10.

[176]Cohen,Bernard C.“The View from the Academy.”In W.Lance Bennett and David L.Paletz eds.Taken by Storm:The Media,Public Opinion and US Foreign Policy in the Gulf War.Chicago,IL:University of Chicago Press,1994,p.10.

[177]Gowing,Nik.“Real-time Television Coverage of Armed Conflicts and Diplomatic Crises:Does it Pressure or Distort Foreign Policy Decisions?”,Harvard Working Paper.Cambridge,MA:The Joan Shorenstein Barone Center on the Press,Politics and Public Policy,Harvard University,1994,p.68.

[178]“Reliable Sources:How Television shapes Diplomacy,”CNN,October 16,1994.转引自Minear,Larry,Colin Scott and Thomas Weiss.The News Media,Civil Wars and Humanitarian Action.Boulder,CO:Lynne Rienner,1996,p.55.

[179]Hines,Craig.“Pity,Not US Security Motivated Use of GIs in Somalia,Bush Says,”The Houston Chronicle,October 24,1999.

[180]Livingston,Steven and Todd Eachus.“Humanitarian Crises and US Foreign Policy.”Political Communication,Vol.12,No.4(1995):p.427;Mermin,Jonathan.“Television News and American Intervention in Somalia:The Myth of a Media Driven Foreign Policy.”Political Science Quarterly.Vol.112,No.3(1997):p.402.

[181]Cusimano,Maryann K.Operation Restore Hope:The Bush Administration's Decision to Intervene in Somalia.Pew Case Studies in International Affairs,Washington D.C.,WA:The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy,1995,p.8.

[182]Strobel,Warren P.Late Breaking Foreign Policy:The News Media's Influence on Peace Operations.Washington D.C.,WA:United States Institute of Peace,1997,p.139.

[183]Natsios,Andrew.“Illusions of Influence:The CNN Effect in complex Emergencies.”In Robert I.Rotberg and Thomas G.Weiss(eds),From Massacres to Genocide:The Media,Public Policy,and Humanitarian Crises.Washington D.C.WA:The Brookings Institution Press,1996,p.168.

[184]美国国务院新闻发布会(State Department press briefings,SDPBs),1992年11月10日,资料来源:Federal News Service,LexisNexis Congressional Universe.

[185]Oberdorfer,Don.“The Path to Intervention:A Massive Tragedy‘We Could Do Something About’.”Washington Post,December 6,1992.;Cusimano,Maryann K.Operation Restore Hope:The Bush Administration s Decision to Intervene in Somalia.Pew Case Studies in International Affairs,Washington D.C.,WA:The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy,1995;Mermin,Jonathan.“Television News and American Intervention in Somalia:The Myth of a Media Driven Foreign Policy.”Political Science Quarterly.Vol.112,No.3(1997):pp.399-403.

[186]WHPB,December 4,1992,Bush's address to the nation.

[187]Department of Defense background briefing(DDBB),December 4,1992

[188]Department of Defense press briefing(DDPB),December 7,1992

[189]Gordon,Michael.“UN Backs a Somalia force as Bush Vows a Swift Exit,”New York Times,December 4,1992,section A,p.1.

[190]Oberdorfer,Don and Trevor Rowe.“UN Moves toward Sending Armed Force to Deliver Food,”Washington Post,November 26,1992,section A,p.1.

[191]Perlez,Jane.“Thievery and Extortion Halt Flow of UN Food to Somalis,”New York Times,December 4,1992,section A,p.1.

[192]Bonner,Raymond.“Buy up the Somalis Gus,”New York Times,December 2,1992,section A,p.23.

[193]Cohen,Bernard C.“The View from the Academy.”In Bennett,W.Lance and David L.Paletz eds.Taken by Storm:The Media,Public Opinion and US Foreign Policy in the Gulf War.Chicago,IL:University of Chicago Press,1994,p.10.

[194]Mandelbaum,Michael.“The Reluctance to Interven,”Foreign Policy,No.95(Summer 1994):p.16.

[195]Gowing,Nik.“Real-time Television Coverage of Armed Conflicts and Diplomatic Crises:Does it Pressure or Distort Foreign Policy Decisions?”,Harvard Working Paper.Cambridge,MA:The Joan Shorenstein Barone Center on the Press,Politics and Public Policy,Harvard University,1994,p.68.

[196]Robinson,Piers.The CNN Effect:The Myth of News,Foreign Policy and Intervention.New York:Routledge,2002,p.58.

[197]Cusimano,Maryann K.Operation Restore Hope:The Bush Administration's Decision to Intervene in Somalia.Pew Case Studies in International Affairs,Washington D.C.,WA:The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy,1995,p.8.

[198]Robinson,Piers.The CNN Effect:The Myth of News,Foreign Policy and Intervention.New York:Routledge,2002,p.62.

[199]Robinson,Piers.The CNN Effect:The Myth of News,Foreign Policy and Intervention.New York:Routledge,2002,p.62.