政策不确定时期媒体显性作用影响机制
要考察新闻媒体对外交决策和公众舆论的影响,首先需要弄清如下几个前提。
第一,媒体对外交政策和舆论的影响是媒体与外交政策关系研究的一部分。具体来说,媒体对外交政策影响可分为如下两个层面问题的研究:一是对媒体对外交政策决策具体过程和决策影响机制的研究,研究对象主要包括决策过程、外交决策文化、公众舆论与利益集团;二是对媒体影响外交决策广义上的研究,主要涉及现代通信技术的发展及其影响、和平安全与战争的影响、对外政策中的经贸政策与媒体影响、外交政策中的对外文化与信息交流与媒体影响等的研究。显然本课题的研究范围属于第一个层面的范畴。媒体对外交决策广义层面的影响并不在本研究范围之内。
第二,媒体、公众、决策者三者之间关系纷繁复杂,艾弗利特·罗杰斯(Everett Rogers)和詹姆斯·迪尔林(James Dearing)将三者间的关系细化为三层九重的错综关系,具体包括:“媒体对自己、公众和决策者的影响;公众对自己、媒体和决策者的影响;以及决策者对自己、媒体和公众的影响。”[142]本研究无法也无意探讨如此繁复交错的关系,而是意在从中剥茧抽丝,侧重考察媒体对他国的报道在外交问题上对公众和外交决策的单方面影响。需要指出的是,着重探讨新闻媒体对公众和外交决策单方向的影响,仅仅是为了便于深入探究新闻媒体的作用,而绝对不是认为媒体对这两方有更强大的影响。因为众所周知的事实是,政府通过官方讲话、新闻发布会等途径,无形中对媒体具有强大的反影响,尤其是在对外决策方面。由于政府对信息源的控制、外交决策者与新闻工作者之间信息量失衡以及记者的爱国精神作用等诸多原因,政府对新闻媒体在外交问题上的影响实际上更为显著。
第三,新闻媒体对外交决策的影响主要是通过影响公众舆论,并继而通过公众舆论对外交决策者施加压力而产生一定改变政策的作用。由于外交政策问题是公众无法通过个人观察和社会交往所能获取信息的领域,因此媒体对于社会公众的影响较之政府更大。[143]
第四,媒体对外交决策的影响始终是间接的。媒体对政策议程的影响虽然确实存在,但绝对不会干预政策具体制定过程和结果。媒体会揭示政策失误,但绝对不会直接参与具体问题的解决。因此,“媒体不会对决策有直接干预,决策者所要做的仅限于对媒体报道作出某种反应,而具体如何应对国际事件,决策者依然可以一如既往地根据国家利益等实际情况进行抉择”[144]。媒体和公众舆论的影响一般是潜在的、不活跃的,这为决策层提供了在大多情况下自由制定和执行政策的宽松空间。但是,西方国家领导层必须时刻通过媒体关注公众对其外交政策有无反应、如何反应等问题,适时适度地对政策进行必要的调整,以确保民众对施政政府的支持。
因此,媒体和公众舆论通常状态下呈现为潜在的不活跃的表象,实际上处于“蓄势待发”(Big club behind the door)[145]的状态。不仅如此,虽然其对决策影响程度在不同情况下大小不同,且常以隐性状态存在,然则却几乎从始至终地影响着外交决策的制定。
外交政策的制定是在部分由新闻媒体构建的信息环境中进行的。媒体在该信息环境中发挥作用的大小取决于多种因素:国家政治传媒体制、国家政治经济体制、政府的传媒政策和新闻媒体发挥作用的特定信息传播渠道等。新闻媒体在上述信息环境中通过议程设定、争夺解释框架、影响外交决策者对外交局势和公众态度等外部世界的判断、迫使决策者对媒体报道作出且通过媒体作出反应等对外交决策产生影响。
危机或冲突持续事件长短也是决定媒体及公众作用大小的重要因素。如果冲突或危机在短期内结束,特别是牵扯美国利益的非常时期,媒体和公众往往自然会关注事态发展,媒体相关国际报道因此会激增。短期冲突对决策者极为有利。新闻媒体未能充分发挥其塑造解释框架,引导舆论乃至间接且显性的影响,公众因对局势不甚了解,因而产生团结现象。通常这是决策者梦寐以求的结果,但往往事与愿违。如果危机或冲突未能在短期内结束,公众与决策者之间的信息不对称现象必将在媒体的作用下逐渐缩小,决策者以转移公众注意力为目的发动的侵略性或单边军事行动,极有可能反而促使公众发现决策端倪(如党派精英的意见不一)转而反对海外军事行动,使决策者陷入危机。
媒体参与并影响外交决策的过程是复杂的,但总体来说主要从如下几个层面对决策产生影响:
第一,决策者认知外部世界变化的信息源。媒体的国际新闻报道所提供的信息营造了由信息构成的认知世界,是决策者感知外部世界变化并对其作出反映的主要认知源。美国总统和其他外交决策者都受到媒体的影响。他们通过媒体了解外部世界,了解其他国家的最新动态。许多国际社会的信息也正是通过媒体这一重要公共传播渠道传递开来。此时,新闻媒体所起到的作用是提供消息来源,这也是决策过程信息输入大环境的重要组成部分,即为决策者提供信息和情报。
第二,决策的重要受众。决策者制定外交政策所要改变的环境中,改变新闻媒体对决策者、对事态的态度也正是外交政策的主要目的之一。新闻媒体因而占据着重要地位。因此,在信息输入和政策输出两个重要环节上,新闻媒体都具有关键作用。
第三,迫使决策者对事件及时作出反应,决策者的决策时间因此大大缩短了。
第四,通过影响公众舆论,给外交决策者施加压力,以迫其改变决策。由新闻媒体在越战中的表现可以得出,新闻媒体具有通过大量电视画面、图片给受众留下深刻印象,以此改变其对相关政策的态度。越战中民众原本对赴越作战支持的态度,在大量惨烈照片和图像报道后,态度逐渐改变,因而迫使决策者对政策作出相应调整。
第五,在突发事件和人道主义等问题上对决策议程产生巨大影响。特别在人道主义事件中,新闻媒体的不断报道使决策者不得不把该事件提上议事日程,并对其进行干预,从这个层面上说,新闻媒体具有一定议程设置的影响。
第六,作为外交决策意图改变的外部世界的重要部分,媒体对外交决策者具有长期无形的压力。高英通过深入采访外交决策者发现,他们经常感到外界的压力,而且在外交决策中也多少受媒体报道的影响。这至少证明一点:媒体与外交决策之间的影响绝对不是单向的。
然而,需要说明的是,媒体的影响始终是间接的。媒体的确对政策议程有影响,但绝对不会干预政策具体制定过程和结果;媒体会揭示政策失误,但绝对不会直接参与具体问题的解决。因此,媒体不会对决策有直接干预,决策者所要做的仅限于对媒体报道作出某种反应,而具体如何应对国际事件,决策者依然可以一如既往地根据国家利益等实际情况进行抉择。[146]因此,媒体的作用是督促政府“勤政”“廉政”“调整政策”,依然是对民主的保障。
学界围绕媒体于外交决策有无影响的争论实际上是对媒体影响动态机制的割裂,是将媒体影响在不同外交决策情形下不断转变的影响态势定格为静态下媒体的不同表现,因此媒体影响时有时无的表面现象就导致众人的迷惑。新闻媒体对外交决策的影响不是有或者无的问题,而是时隐时现的问题。媒体影响实际上从未消失过。在历史长河中媒体“没有影响”的常态表象下,是其不易为人察觉但却潜移默化地改变公众乃至外交决策者视野、认识和态度的潜在的隐性的影响。媒体影响只在特定情况下由隐性转为显性。因此,真正值得探讨的问题不是新闻媒体对外交决策是否有影响的问题,而是如何解释媒体时强时弱的现象的问题。
那么,应该如何解释媒体对外交决策时强时弱的现象呢?媒体对外交决策影响何时强?何时弱?媒体在对外交决策强弱不等的影响过程中究竟对决策发生了哪些影响?这些影响又具体怎样在外交决策中发挥作用呢?
本研究提出,利用政策确定性范式来解释媒体与公众和外交决策之间复杂多变的关系,从政策确定性的角度研究不同情况下媒体发挥作用的机制及其影响强弱态势转化的联动机制,一方面有助于理解新闻媒体的影响时强时弱但却无时无刻不存在的特性,另一方面意在探讨媒体影响究竟何时强何时弱,解释为什么政策不确定时期,媒体会大肆批评政府决策,而当政策确定时期又转而与政府保持一致口径的原因。
政策确定性范式来解释媒体影响机制的关键是将外交政策制定分为不同阶段来研究。从前文进行的国联和索马里个案不难看出,同一外交问题从酝酿到出台再到执行的过程中,诸多因素会致使政策在确定和不确定之间徘徊。如危机持续的时间长短、决策者内部发生意见分歧、媒体推动等都会使政策确定性质发生变化。以国联问题为例,威尔逊提出国联设想之初,政策明确,赋予了政策合理的解释框架,得到媒体和公众积极响应。但随着国联问题交付国会讨论,国会内部发生意见分歧,直接导致国联提案落空。又如索马里事件中,布什政府起初在是否干涉问题上并没有明确的政策,在媒体报道逐渐增多,公众逐渐对此问题有所了解,决策者和公众之间的信息量差距在媒体作用下迅速缩小甚至消失,布什最终明确作出干涉决策。
如同研究公众舆论时将舆论在短期和长期危机下的不同作用进行分别讨论一样,研究新闻媒体的作用也要一分为二,即在大多数情况下的政策明确情况下被操控的稍显消极的影响呈隐性的新闻媒体,和时而浮现的更积极更显性的政策不确定时期的媒体。而决策层与公众之间信息均衡与否是媒体上述两种不同表现的最明显的不同之处,而决策者内部发生分歧或突发事件后的政策缺失是造成媒体两种不同表现的原因。对新闻媒体的这种理解就可以将观点迥异的各家之言统一在同一个解释框架之下。
那么,如何解释媒体各种作用机制在外交政策明确和不确定时期的内在联系呢?
当遇有突发事件,政府暂时还没有形成政策,或者决策层内部产生的分歧公开化,就会出现政策不确定性情况。政策不确定时期也是政策酝酿时期,媒体在以频度和力度都大大超过平日、现如今已是24小时实时的新闻报道一石三鸟地发挥影响:一方面迎合了公众渴望了解相关信息的需求,制造舆论,刺激舆论,营造政策环境,改变舆论对外交政策态度;另一方面通过对报道什么不报道什么的把关以及对目标议题的反复报道影响决策议程;另外媒体积极参与决策辩论,对外交决策者施加无形而强大的压力,迫使决策者在最短的时间内作出或调整决策。媒体过多过于积极地透露官方和军方的消息,常会阻碍或干涉外交决策的制定。此时,媒体往往以比政府情报部门更快更直接的信息渠道为决策者提供重要的外交信息。此时的媒体甚至经常有能力“撼动政府”。
由于国会并不直接参与外交政策策划的特性,媒体对国会的影响基本上不因外交政策确定与否发生重大变化,主要包括:新闻媒体是外交问题上维持行政部门与立法部门间制衡关系的关键所在,影响国会议程设置,对议题、法案或听证会关注与否能直接影响立法结果,突出国会某机构组织或个人的重要性,影响公众对国会具体机构的印象,直接影响国会议案商讨进展过程,帮助议员宣传自己甚至影响国会议员的言行等。
新闻媒体的国际新闻报道是公众了解外交事务的重要渠道,起着教育公众的作用,在对他国报道的过程中,潜移默化地在公众心目中不断塑造并勾勒着世界行政地图,决定着公众的国际视野所及的范围。同时,新闻媒体也是决策者和公众了解某外交问题上公众民意倾向的主要方式。在关于他国的新闻报道过程中,媒体对某个国家和地区报道频率直接影响公众对该国的态度,报道的频率越高,公众对该国就越有好感。而这些影响是新闻媒体以难以为公众所察觉的特殊方式进行的。在外交政策明确时期,媒体还有一些为人们多多少少有所感觉但却说不清道不明的潜在的但却极为重要的影响,即:媒体设定公共议程的作用日复一日地决定着人们每天共同关心和谈论的话题,这种作用在不为普通公众熟知的外交事务上尤为明显,因为媒体得以充分发挥其公共议程设定、提供解释外交问题前因后果的框架作用和评判标准的作用。
“政策确定性的缺失”为新闻“媒体提供了难得的机会”。在危机或政策不确定时期,媒体对公众的影响更是超过以往。在外交政策酝酿初期,决策精英占有绝对的信息优势,公众对事实的感知是极具弹性的。这常常使总统得以主宰所谓的“解释框架战争”。随着时间的推移,随着事实真相逐渐浮出水面,公众通过媒体获取了更多的信息,弹性逐渐消失,这就为其他解释框架得以影响公众舆论打开了活动空间。如果某些人(如新闻记者)站出来提出其他解释框架,只要不超出逐渐消失的事实弹性所能接受的极限,就有很好的机会与总统提出的解释框架分庭抗礼。[147]
围绕伊拉克战争产生的一系列冲突就是极好的例证。无论所谓的“事实”如何,随着时间推移,公众似乎确信,即布什政府的战争理由超出了事实弹性。其结果表现在2006年中期选举中,共和党在国会失利,公众对布什支持率也大幅下滑。随着伊拉克没有发现大规模杀伤武器的消息的不胫而走,为了避免公众对新闻媒体同样负面的反应,媒体抢先在《纽约时报》掀起一股反思浪潮,深刻反省新闻媒体如何又为什么毫无异议地接受了官方对伊拉克战争的解释框架。[148]
在危机或政策不确定时期的初期,媒体较平时更为积极主动地提供公众所需要的突发事件相关信息,以迅速改善决策者与公众之间的信息不对等状态。在此期间特别是当涉及美国国家利益问题时,媒体主动充当着“团结在国旗下”现象制造者的角色,鼓动公众团结在政府周围,一致对外。政策不确定时期公众对什么问题最重要、问题相关的背景、有哪些解决问题的可行方案、如何看待和评判相关问题和人物等问题的解答都主要依赖媒体的报道。详见图5-1。

图5-1 新闻媒体国际报道影响本国外交决策和公众舆论“决策确定性”影响机制一览表
媒体作为决策者外交问题上的重要信息来源,给外交决策者施加压力、督促决策者对政策本身的思考,调整政策、把关人、决策者和公众之间联系的纽带和桥梁,消除信息不对称、预设价值判断标准和加速决策进程,公众了解外交事务的重要渠道、设定公共议程、设定解释框架、预设评判标准等作用,在外交政策明确和不明确时期同时存在,只是媒体这些影响在外交政策不明确时期的影响相对更强。
媒体不同情况下对外交决策发生影响的时候,也是公众舆论对外交决策产生压力和影响的时候。公众很少直接观察事实,在外交事务中尤其如此,他们通常通过短期和长期地观察事实被解释的情况,并对其作出反应。[149]由于公众对外交事务的不熟悉,与外交决策者之间存在严重的信息不对等现象,其外交政策问题报道的需求反应也一般较慢。[150]因此,在外交事务的短期危机中,公众在媒体和政府的共同作用下往往会形成“团结在国旗下”现象。但随着危机或冲突的延续,随着媒体报道逐渐缩小公众与决策者之间的信息差距,一旦公众发现事实与消息之间差距太大,其反应便会是迅速而猛烈的。无论是媒体还是相关信息在公众中造成的“越战症候群”现象和“伤亡反应”现象会最终迫使决策者调整其外交政策。
总体来说,媒体在外交政策缺失的情况下作用更大。政策不确定初期,媒体全面报道政府内部分歧的全面情况,偶有对政府政策提出批评意见的情况,给政府施加压力,寄希望政府因此改变政策。此阶段媒体对政府有压力,但政策执行人员对媒体压力视而不见,依然行事如故,着意抵制媒体的影响力。值得注意的是,新闻媒体对外交政策的公然挑战只会在华盛顿部分决策精英对现行政策产生怀疑之后。[151]决策层分歧公开化或者遇有突发事件后,媒体的大量报道首先一方面引起决策者和公众对目标议题的注意,影响外交决策的议程;另一方面迅速缩小公众与决策者之间的信息差距。其次,大量报道给决策者施加的压力并平时更大,督促决策者尽快调整或出台政策。同时,媒体对目标议题提供的多元解释框架和评判标准一方面影响着决策层内部分歧各方的话语权的均衡态势,另一方面左右着公众每日谈论的话题和对目标议题的态度和看法。
【注释】
[1]转引自Robinson,Piers.The CNN Effect:The Myth of News,Foreign Policy and Intervention.New York:Routledge,2002,p.30.
[2]Neack,Laura.The New Foreign Policy:U.S.and Comparative Foreign Policy in the 21th Century.Lanham:Rowman and Littlefield,Co.,2003,p.118.
[3]转引自Carr,David.“War News from MTV and People Magazine.”New York Times.March 27,2003,p.B14.
[4]Graber,Doris A.Mass Media and American Politics.Washington,DC:CQ Press,2002,p.3.
[5]Entman,Robert M.Projections of Power:Framing News,Public Opinion,and U.S.Foreign Policy.Chicago:Univ.Chicago Press,2003,p.123.
[6]“把关人”是新闻传播领域中政治传播学在常态下媒体影响研究中提出的理论。把关人(gatekeeper)一词是1947年由社会心理学家库尔特·卢因(Kurt Lewin)首先提出的(见Lewin,Kurt.“Channels of Group Life”,Human Relations,Vol.1,No.2(1947):pp.143-153),卢因的学生曼宁·怀特(Manning White)最早将此理论引入新闻媒体的研究(White,David Manning.“The Gatekeeper:A Case Study in the Selection ofNews.”JournalismQuarterly.Vol.27,No.4(1950):pp.383-396),指把关人是那些有权决定某一条新闻是否应保留在新闻渠道的人。近年来,把关理论被运用到了新闻媒体影响机制的大环境之中用以研究新闻媒体的把关作用,即把关人决定了报道什么,不报道什么及其原因。该理论认为,新闻媒体对外交政策的影响远比标引理论更为积极。把关人相关研究显示,新闻记者通过判断报道的新闻价值来塑造新闻。(见Galtung,Johan and Mari Holmboe Ruge.“The Structure of Foreign News.”Journal of Peace Research,Vol.2,No.1(1965):pp.64-91;Thomas E.Patterson.Out of Order.New York:Knopf,1993.)
[7]Klapper,Joseph.The Effects of Mass Communications.New York:Free Press,1960,pp.104-105.
[8]学术价值较高的有:Cohen,Bernard C.The Press and Foreign Policy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1963;Cook,Timothy E.Governing With the News;Fay L.Cook,Tom R.Tayler,Edward G.Goetz,Margaret T.Gordon,David Protess,Donna R.Leff,and Harvey L.Molotch.“Media and Agendasetting:Effects on the Public,Interest Group Leaders,Policy Makers,and Policy.”Public Opinion Quarterly,Vol.47,No.1(1983):pp.16-35;Lutz Erbring,Arthur Miller and Edie Goldenberg.“Front page News and Real World Cues:A New Look at Agenda-setting.”American Journal of Political Science Vol.24,No.1(1980):pp.16-49;Michael B.MacKuen.“Social Communication and the Mass Policy Agenda.”In Michael B.MacKuen and Steven L.Coombs eds.More Than News:Media Power in Public Affairs.Beverly Hills:Sage,1981,pp.19-144;Michael B.MacKuen.“Exposure to Information,Belief Integration,and Individual Responsiveness to Agenda Change.”American Political Science Review.Vol.78,No.2(1984):pp.372-391.
[9]McCombs,Maxwell.“The Agenda-setting Approach.”In Dan D.Nimmo and Keith R.Sanders.Handbook of Political Communication.Ann Arbor:UMI,1998.
[10]Cohen,Bernard C.The Press and Foreign Policy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1963,p.13.
[11]McCombs,Maxwell E.and Donald L.Shaw.“The Agenda-setting Function of the Mass Media.”Public Opinion Quarterly,Vol.36,No.2(1972):p.176.
[12]详见McCombs,Maxwell E.and Donald L.Shaw.“The Agenda-setting Function of the Mass Media.”Public Opinion Quarterly,Vol.36,No.2(1972):pp.176-187;Maxwell E.McCombs.Setting The Agenda:The Mass Media And Public Opinion.Cambridge:Polity Press,2004;Dearing,James W.and Everret M.Rogers.Agenda Setting.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage Publications,1996.
[13]参见Schudson,Michael.“The Sociology of News Production.”Media,Culture & Society.Vol.11,No.3(1989):pp.263-282.
[14]Ibelema,Mineabere and Larry Powell.“Cable Television News Viewed as Most Credible.”Newspaper Research Journal,Vol.22,No.1(2001):p.42.
[15]Ibelema,Mineabere and Larry Powell.“Cable Television News Viewed as Most Credible.”Newspaper Research Journal,Vol.22,No.1(2001):p.42.
[16]刘继南主编:《大众传播与国际关系》,北京:北京广播学院出版社,1999年版,第194页。
[17]Patterson,Thomas E.“The United States:News in a Free-Market Society.”In Richard Gunther and Anthony Mughan eds.Democracy and the Media:AComparative Perspective.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge Univ.Press,2000,pp.241-265.
[18]Cohen,Bernard C.The Press and Foreign Policy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1963,p.34.
[19]Baum,Matthew A.Soft News Goes to War:Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy in the New Media Age.Princeton,NJ:Princeton Univ.Press,2003;Hamilton,JT.Allthe News That's Fit to Sell:How the Market Transforms Information into News.Princeton,NJ:Princeton Univ.Press,2003.
[20]Cohen,Bernard C.The Press and Foreign Policy.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1963.
[21]Linsky,Martin.Impact:How the Press Affects Federal Policy Making.New York:W.W.Norton,1986,p.91.
[22]Iyengar,Shanto and Richard Reeves.Do The Media Govern:Politicians,Voters,and Reporters in America.Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage,1997;Graber,Doris A.Mass Media and American Politics.Washington,DC:CQ Press,2002.
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[26]Elson,Robert T.Time Inc.:The Intimate Hisotry of the Publishing Empire.New York:Athenaeum,1968,p.429.
[27]例如Lance,Bennett,W.News:The Politics of Illusion.New York:Longman,2001;Patterson,Thomas E.“The United States:News in a Free-Market Society.”In Richard Gunther and Anthony Mughan eds.Democracy and the Media:A Comparative Perspective.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge Univ.Press,2000,pp.241-265.
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[29]该理论将领导人看作舞台上的演员,而台下是诸多的政治观众,他们能够观察领导人的一举一动:认为国际危机是一个公开事件,是在国内政治观众面前发生的。国内观众可以观察到领导人处理危机的行动和表现,并且据此来评估领导人的能力。这是理解危机如何爆发以及如何展开的关键。危机作为一种政治摩擦,是国家间就共同利益的分配问题进行讨价还价的一个过程,因此在每个阶段中国家都可以有多种选择,可以选择攻击、让步或者进一步将危机升级。假设领导人选择退缩,或者没能够兑现自己的公开承诺或者威胁,那么就可能要遭受国内政治观众的惩罚,包括批评、谴责,甚至于被解除职务、罢免等。这里的国内政治观众包括反对党、竞争对手、国会议员、政治官僚、利益集团、大众(特别是在大众媒体崛起之后)等。详见Fearon,James D.“Domestic Political Audiences and The Escalation of International Disputes.”American Political Science Review,Vol.188,No.13(1994):pp.577-592.
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