6.4 Id1通过调控LDLR的表达参与低震荡切应力引起的内皮脂质吸收过程
动脉粥样硬化斑块起始于LDL在血管壁的沉积,而细胞内LDL的吸收主要是通过低密度脂蛋白受体(LDLR)内吞实现的,此途径又称为LDLR途径。对于LDLR表达的调控,目前在分子水平开展了诸多研究工作。其中,SREBP1是调控LDLR表达的重要转录因子,属于bHLH家族,可以与胆固醇调节元件1(SRE-l)特异性结合从而调控基因的表达。本章研究中IPA分析也发现Id1可能与LDLR存在调控关系,本节通过在体及体外方法研究了LDLR在OSS调控血管内皮细胞脂质吸收的作用及Id1与LDLR之间的关系。
将实验分为Id1过表达对照组(Flag-con),Id1过表达组(Flag-Id1);Id1干扰对照组(si-con)、Id1干扰组(si-Id1),分别探讨各组中Id1以及LDLR的表达变化情况。结果显示,过表达组中Id1蛋白的表达量比过表达对照组增加了近一倍,明显高于对照组(图6-15(a),(b)),而干扰组细胞中Id1蛋白的表达量相比干扰对照组也下降近
,这说明过表达及干扰细胞都分别达到了过表达及干扰效果(图6-15(c),(d))。在此基础上我们检测了LDLR蛋白的表达情况,结果如图6-15所示,当Id1过表达时,LDLR蛋白的表达被抑制,而当Id1被干扰后,LDLR的表达量明显增加。通过荧光定量PCR分析Id1-t、con-t、si-Id1和si-con细胞中LDLR的表达,结果如图6-15(e),(f)所示,与蛋白结果趋势相同,Id1过表达细胞中LDLR的表达降低,而Id1干扰细胞中,LDLR表达增加。这说明Id1负调控LDLR的表达。
为研究Id1如何影响细胞对LDL的吸收,以及LDLR是否参与了此过程,构建了Id1与LDLR共转染细胞(si-Id1+si-LDLR),并通过对照组细胞内绿色荧光确定siRNA成功转入细胞内(图6-16)。Western blot检测共转染细胞内Id1及LDLR的表达情况后发现,相对于si-con组、si-Id1及si-Id1+si-LDLR组中Id1的表达量明显下降,说明干扰细胞达到了干扰Id1蛋白表达的效果。LDLR蛋白的表达结果显示:相对于si-con组,si-Id1中LDLR表达增加,说明Id1被干扰后LDLR被激活,而si-Id1+si-LDLR组中LDLR的表达比si-Id1低,说明si-LDLR达到了干扰效果(图6-17)。用Dil-LDL对Flag-con、Flag-Id1、si-con、si-Id1及si-Id1+si-LDLR细胞进行处理,结果显示Id1过表达时细胞吸收的LDL相比对照组明显降低(图6-18(a),(b)),当Id1及LDLR同时被干扰后,Id1干扰引起的LDL吸收则被抑制(图6-18(c),(d)),说明Id1调控了LDLR介导的脂质吸收途径。


图6-15 Id1调控LDLR的表达。(a)Western blot分析过表达对照(Flag-con)及过表达(Flag-Id1)细胞中Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达量。(b)统计分析Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达量,通过与Actin进行比较定量分析(n=3)。(c)Western blot分析干扰对照(si-con)及干扰(si-Id1)细胞中Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达量。(d)统计分析Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达量,通过与Actin进行比较定量分析(n=3)。(e)定量PCR分析Id1过表达及对照细胞中Id1及LDLR的表达情况(n=3)。(f)定量PCR分析Id1干扰及对照细胞中Id1及LDLR的表达情况(n=3)。**p<0.001表示与过表达对照组(Flag-con)相比有显著差异。##p<0.001表示与干扰对照组(si-con)相比有显著差异。[引自:张康.Id1调控脂质吸收参与动脉粥样硬化斑块形成的力学生物学机制[D]. 重庆:重庆大学, 2018.]
Figure 6-15 Id1 can regulate the expression of LDLR.(a)Western blot was used to analysis the expression of Id1 and LDLR protein in Flag-Id1 and Flag-con ECs. (b)Quantitative analysis of Id1 and LDLR expression, the expression was normalized to that of Actin(n=3).(c)Western blot was used to analysis the expression of Id1 and LDLR protein in Id1 knockdown(si-Id1)and control(si-con)ECs.(d)Quantitative analysis of Id1 and LDLR expression, the expression was normalized to that of Actin(n=3).(e)Realtime PCR was used to detect Id1 and LDLR expression level in Flag-Id1 and Flag-con ECs(n=3).(f)Real-time PCR was used to detect Id1 and LDLR expression level in si-Id1 and si-con ECs(n=3). **p<0.001 vs the Flag-con controls. ##p<0.001 vs the si-con controls.[Adapted from: Zhang K. The mechanogical mechanisms of Id1-regulated lipid uptake in atherosclerosis plaque formation[D]. Chongqing: Chongqing University, 2018.]

图6-16 siRNA转染后,干扰对照组内呈现较强的绿色荧光。[引自:张康.Id1调控脂质吸收参与动脉粥样硬化斑块形成的力学生物学机制[D]. 重庆:重庆大学, 2018.]
Figure 6-16 After transfection, si-con cells had very strong green fluorescence.[Adapted from: Zhang K. The mechanogical mechanisms of Id1-regulated lipid uptake in atherosclerosis plaque formation[D]. Chongqing: Chongqing University, 2018.]

图6-17 siRNA双转后Id1及LDLR的表达情况分析。(a)Western blot分析si-con,si-Id1及si-Id1+si-LDLR细胞中Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达量。(b)统计分析Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达量,通过与Actin进行比较定量分析(n=3)。#p<0.05和 ##p<0.001表示与干扰对照组(si-con)相比有显著差异,@p<0.05 表示与Id1干扰组(si-Id1)相比有显著差异。[引自:Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng. 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
Figure 6-17 Expression analysis of Id1 and LDLR after double siRNA transfection.(a)Western blot analysis of the protein level of Id1 and LDLR in si-con, si-Id1 and si-Id1+si-LDLR ECs.(b)Quantitative analysis of Id1 and LDLR expression, the expression was normalized to that of Actin.(n=3). #p<0.05 and ##p<0.001 vs the si-con controls. @p<0.05 vs the si-Id1 groups.[Adapted from: Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng. 2018, 46(6):849-863.]

图6-18 Id1通过调控LDLR的表达影响内皮细胞脂质吸收。(a)荧光分析过表达对照(Flag-con)及过表达(Flag-Id1)细胞中的脂质吸收情况。(b)统计分析Dil-LDL的荧光强度(n=4)。(c)免疫荧光分析 si-con、si-Id1及si-Id1+si-LDLR细胞中的脂质吸收情况。(d)统计分析Dil-LDL的荧光强度(n=4)。*p<0.05表示与过表达对照(Flag-con)相比有显著差异;#p<0.05表示与干扰对照(si-con)相比有显著差异;@p<0.05 表示与Id1干扰组(si-Id1)相比有显著差异。[引自:Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
Figure 6-18 Id1 influenced LDL uptake by regulated LDLR expression in ECs.(a)Immunofluorescence analysis of LDL uptake in Flag-Id1 and Flagcon ECs.(b)Quantitative analysis the mean fluorescence intensity of LDL(n=4).(c)Immunofluorescence analysis of LDL accumulation in si-con, si-Id1 and si-Id1+si-LDLR ECs.(d)Quantitative analysis the mean fluorescence intensity of LDL(n=4). *p<0.05 vs the Flag-con controls; #p<0.05 vs the si-con controls; @p<0.05 vs the si-Id1 groups.[Adapted from: Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
接着研究了OSS是否会通过Id1调控LDLR的表达影响脂质吸收。首先在小鼠低震荡切应力模型中检测了血管内皮细胞中LDLR蛋白是否受到低震荡切应力的影响。分别对小鼠左颈动脉及右颈动脉进行结扎及假手术操作,24 h后,取颈动脉血管进行en face染色检测。结果发现与右颈动脉LSS相比,结扎的左颈动脉OSS区域内皮细胞中LDLR的荧光强度明显升高(图6-19(a))。通过对LDLR阳性细胞及DAPI阳性细胞数量进行统计发现,左颈动脉OSS区域的LDLR阳性内皮细胞大约是右颈动脉LSS区域的4倍(图6-19(b))。对LDLR的荧光灰度进行分析发现OSS区域的LDLR表达大约是LSS区域的3倍(图6-19(b))。

图6-19 在结扎24 h后,左颈及右颈动脉血管内皮细胞中LDLR蛋白表达情况。(a)对左颈动脉及右颈动脉内皮细胞中的LDLR蛋白进行en face染色,左颈动脉(LCA)中的荧光强度远远强于右颈动脉(RCA)。(b)统计分析LDLR阳性细胞与DAPI阳性细胞的比值以及LDLR的荧光灰度值(n=3)。**p<0.001 表示与RCA(LSS)相比有显著差异。[引自:Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
Figure 6-19 The expression of LDLR in left and right carotid arteries was detected 24 hours later after ligated.(a)En face staining analysis of the level of LDLR, the fluorescence intensity in LCA is significantly higher than RCA.(b)Quantitative analysis of the percentage of numbers of LDLR-positive cells relative to DAPI-stained cells and the mean fluorescence intensity of LDLR(n=3). **p<0.001 vs the RCA(LSS)controls.[Adapted from: Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
对人脐静脉内皮细胞进行力学加载,检测体外力学加载后LDLR蛋白的表达模式。结果如图6-20所示,对细胞进行LSS加载后,与静止状态相比,随着加载时间的延长,LDLR蛋白的表达呈上升趋势,加载到12 h表达量达到顶峰,但随着加载时间增加到24 h后,LDLR的表达量开始下降,并低于静止状态的表达量,说明层流瞬间促进LDLR的表达,但到一定时间后会抑制其表达(图6-20(a))。而对细胞进行OSS加载后,与静止状态相比,随着加载时间的增加,LDLR蛋白的表达量持续增加,24 h表达量最多(图6-20(a))。通过对Western blot的结果进行统计分析发现,与静态相比,LSS瞬时促进LDLR的表达,随着时间的增加,LDLR的表达开始呈下降趋势,而OSS则持续的激活LDLR的表达(图6-20(b))。在体及体外的结果说明OSS可以促进LDLR的表达,而第3章中我们发现OSS会促进内皮细胞内的脂质吸收,因此,我们对内皮细胞进行LDLR干扰处理(si-LDLR),以此来检测OSS是否可以通过影响LDLR的表达来影响脂质吸收。LDLR被成功干扰后(图6-21(a)),对对照组细胞(si-con)及si-LDLR细胞进行OSS加载,随后检测细胞内的脂质吸收情况,结果显示si-LDLR细胞内的脂质吸收量明显低于si-con组细胞(图6-21(b),(c))。说明LDLR介导了OSS对细胞脂质吸收的调控过程。(https://www.daowen.com)

图6-20 人脐静脉内皮细胞中LDLR蛋白受到剪切应力调控。(a)Western blot分析随着时间的增加,低震荡切应力及层流切应力下LDLR蛋白的表达变化情况。(b)统计分析LDLR蛋白的表达,通过与Actin进行比较定量分析(n=3)。**p<0.001表示与静态相比有显著差异。[引自:张康.Id1调控脂质吸收参与动脉粥样硬化斑块形成的力学生物学机制[D]. 重庆:重庆大学, 2018.]
Figure 6-20 LDLR protein expression was regulated by shear stress in HUVECs.(a)Western blot was used to analysis the protein level of LDLR treated with LSS and OSS over a time course of 24 h.(b)Quantitative analysis of LDLR expression, the expression was normalized to that of Actin(n=3). **p<0.001 vs the static controls.[Adapted from: Zhang K. The mechanogical mechanisms of Id1-regulated lipid uptake in atherosclerosis plaque formation[D]. Chongqing: Chongqing University, 2018.]

图6-21 OSS通过LDLR影响内皮脂质吸收。(a)Western blot分析干扰对照(si-con)及干扰细胞(si-LDLR)内LDLR蛋白的表达量。(b)荧光分析OSS处理后干扰对照(sicon)及干扰(si-LDLR)细胞中脂质吸收情况。(c)统计分析Dil-LDL的荧光强度(n=4)。*p<0.05表示与干扰对照(si-con)相比有显著差异。[引自:张康.Id1调控脂质吸收参与动脉粥样硬化斑块形成的力学生物学机制[D]. 重庆:重庆大学, 2018.]
Figure 6-21 OSS influenced LDL uptake through LDLR in ECs.(a)Western blot analysis of the protein level of LDLR in si-con and si-LDLR ECs.(b)Immunofluorescence analysis of LDL uptake in si-con and si-LDLR ECs treated with OSS for 24h.(c)Quantitative analysis the mean fluorescence intensity of LDL(n=4). *p<0.05 vs si-con controls.[Adapted from: Zhang K. The mechanogical mechanisms of Id1-regulated lipid uptake in atherosclerosis plaque formation[D]. Chongqing: Chongqing University, 2018.]
对内皮细胞进行24 h的力学加载,然后检测Id1及LDLR的表达情况。力学加载结束后,将加载的玻片取出并进行免疫荧光染色,结果显示与静态及LSS相比,OSS处理后Id1的荧光强度明显降低。对荧光灰度进行统计分析,结果显示OSS可以抑制Id1的表达(图6-22(a),(b))。而OSS处理后LDLR的荧光强度明显升高,统计分析结果显示OSS可以促进LDLR的表达(图6-22(c),(d))。提取经LSS及OSS处理过的细胞全蛋白并进行Western blot检测,结果如图6-23所示,与静态及LSS相比,OSS处理后Id1蛋白的表达明显下降,而LDLR蛋白的表达显著上升,两个蛋白的表达模式相反。Western blot结果与免疫荧光结果相吻合,并且证实了我们前期的猜测,即Id1与LDLR均受到OSS调控,并且呈负相关趋势。

图6-22 静态及力学处理后Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达情况分析。(a)免疫荧光分析静态(Static)、层流切应力(LSS)及低震荡切应力(OSS)处理24 h后Id1的表达。(b)统计分析Id1蛋白的荧光强度(n=3)。(c)免疫荧光分析Static、LSS及OSS处理24 h后LDLR的表达。(d)统计分析LDLR蛋白的荧光强度(n=3)。@p<0.05和@@p<0.001表示与静态相比有显著差异;&&p<0.001表示与层流(LSS)相比有显著差异。[引自:张康.Id1调控脂质吸收参与动脉粥样硬化斑块形成的力学生物学机制[D]. 重庆:重庆大学, 2018.]
Figure 6-22 Expression of Id1 and LDLR in ECs treated with Static, LSS and OSS.(a)Immunofluorescence analysis of Id1 expression in ECs treated with Static, LSS and OSS for 24 hour.(b)Quantitative analysis the mean fluorescence intensity of Id1(n=3).(c)Immunofluorescence analysis of LDLR expression in ECs treated with Static, LSS and OSS for 24 hour.(d)Quantitative analysis the mean fluorescence intensity of LDLR(n=3). @p<0.05 and @@p<0.001 vs the static controls; &&p<0.001 vs the LSS controls.[Adapted from: Zhang K. The mechanogical mechanisms of Id1-regulated lipid uptake in atherosclerosis plaque formation[D]. Chongqing: Chongqing University, 2018.]

图6-23 静态及切应力处理内皮细胞后,Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达分析。(a)Western blot分析静态(Static)、层流切应力(LSS)及低震荡切应力(OSS)处理24 h后Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达。(b)统计分析Id1及LDLR蛋白的表达量,通过与Actin进行比较定量分析(n=3)。#p<0.05和##p<0.001表示与静态相比有显著/极显著差异;@@p<0.001表示与层流(LSS)相比有极显著差异.[引自:Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stressmediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng. 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
Figure 6-23 Expression of Id1 and LDLR in ECs treated with Static, LSS and OSS.(a)Western blot analysis of the protein level of Id1 and LDLR treated with Static, LSS and OSS for 24 h.(b)Quantitative analysis of Id1 and LDLR expression, the expression was normalized to that of Actin(n=3). #p<0.05和##p<0.001 vs the static controls; @@p<0.001 vs the LSS controls.[Adapted from: Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng. 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
OSS抑制Id1的表达,促进LDLR的表达,并且Id1也可以调控LDLR的表达,那么Id1是否参与了OSS对LDLR的调控过程呢?对Id1过表达及对照细胞进行力学加载24 h后提取蛋白并通过Western blot检测LDLR的表达情况,结果如图6-24所示,OSS处理后的Flag-con细胞LDLR的表达量明显高于LSS处理后的Flag-con细胞;对Flag-Id1进行OSS加载24 h,然后检测LDLR的表达,发现同样是OSS处理情况下,Flag-Id1细胞中LDLR的表达量明显低于Flag-con细胞(图6-24),说明Id1参与了OSS对LDLR的调控过程,OSS促进LDLR的表达是通过对Id1的抑制实现的。
之前有研究表明,Id1可能通过与SREBP1结合,抑制SREBP1的功能,从而抑制LDLR的表达。为验证此想法,首先提取了Flag-Id1细胞的蛋白,并且分别用Flag及SREBP1抗体进行免疫共沉淀实验来验证Flag-Id1是否与SREBP1有相互作用。结果如图6-25(a)所示,当用SREBP1抗体拉取与SREBP1结合的蛋白并通过Flag抗体进行Western blot验证后发现,外源的Id1可以与SREBP1结合。相反,用Flag抗体拉取与Flag-Id1结合的蛋白,并通过SREBP1抗体进行Western blot验证后发现SREBP1可以与外源的Id1结合。免疫共沉淀的结果说明外源Id1蛋白与SREBP1蛋白有互作。通过荧光共定位的方法检测Id1与SREBP1是否存在共定位现象,结果如图6-25(b)所示,绿色荧光代表Id1蛋白、红色荧光代表SREBP1蛋白、蓝色代表细胞核,合成绿色和红色荧光后发现绿色的Id1蛋白和红色的SREBP1蛋白有共定位(白色箭头指示)。免疫共沉淀结合荧光共定位的结果说明Id1与SREBP1在细胞中存在物理结合。此外我们提取了Flag-con,Flag-Id1,si-con,si-Id1细胞蛋白,通过Western blot实验分析SREBP1的表达情况,统计结果发现Id1的异常表达没有影响SREBP1蛋白的表达(图6-25(c),(d))。以上结果说明Id1可以与SREBP1形成复合体。

图6-24 Id1参与了OSS对LDLR的调控过程。(a)Western blot分析Id1过表达及其对照细胞加载层流切应力及低震荡切应力后LDLR蛋白的表达。(b)统计分析LDLR蛋白的表达量,通过与Actin进行比较定量分析(n=3)。@@p<0.001 表示与对照组层流相比(Flagcon LSS controls)存在极显著差异;&&p<0.001表示与对照组低震荡切应力处理相比(Flagcon OSS controls)存在极显著差异。[引自:Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
Figure 6-24 Id1 was involved in OSS-regulated LDLR expression.(a)Western blot analysis LDLR expression in Flag-Id1 and Flag-con ECs applied with LSS and OSS.(b)Quantitative analysis of LDLR expression, the expression was normalized to that of Actin(n=3). @@p<0.001 vs the Flag-con LSS controls. &&p<0.001 vs the Flag-con OSS controls.[Adapted from: Zhang K et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stressmediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6): 849-863.]
本章通过细胞分子生物学、生物化学等方法研究了Id1蛋白参与OSS调控脂质吸收的相关分子机制:构建Id1过表达及干扰细胞后检测LDLR的表达情况及脂质吸收情况,结果显示Id1过表达会抑制LDLR蛋白的表达,并且抑制内皮细胞对LDL的吸收;相反的,Id1被干扰后会上调LDLR蛋白的表达且促进内皮细胞对LDL的吸收;同时将Id1及LDLR干扰后可以抑制Id1单独干扰引起的脂质吸收过程。说明Id1通过调控LDLR的表达影响细胞脂质吸收;在体en face染色及体外Western blot检测结果显示OSS会抑制Id1蛋白的表达,持续的促进LDLR的表达。将LDLR干扰后,OSS引起的脂质吸收过程被抑制,说明OSS通过调控LDLR的表达影响细胞内的脂质吸收过程。对Id1过表达及对照组细胞进行力学加载,Western blot检测细胞中LDLR的表达变化情况,结果显示Id1过表达抑制了OSS对的LDLR促进作用,这说明OSS通过Id1调控LDLR表达。通过免疫共沉淀、荧光共定位及Western blot方法检测Id1与SREBP1的关系,发现Id1可以与SREBP1相结合形成复合体,这种结合可能对Id1调控LDLR的表达起到重要作用。

图6-25 Id1与SREBP1存在相互作用。(a)免疫共沉淀检测SREBP1与Id1的结合情况,先用SREBP1的抗体拉蛋白,然后用Flag抗体进行Western blot检测,发现Id1有表达(上面的条带)。随后用Flag抗体拉蛋白,用SREBP1的抗体进行Western blot检测,发现有SREBP1的表达(下面的条带),小鼠IgG作为阴性对照(n=3)。(b)Id1与SREBP1荧光共定位。 用兔抗Id1抗体(绿色)及鼠抗SREBP1抗体孵育细胞,并用对应的驴抗兔二抗(带绿色荧光)及山羊抗鼠二抗(带红色荧光)进行染色,DAPI染核(蓝色)。白色箭头指红色荧光和绿色荧光存在共定位(n=5)。(c)Western blot检测Id1过表达及干扰细胞中SREBP1蛋白的表达情况。(d)统计分析SREBP1蛋白的表达量,通过与Actin进行比较定量分析(n=3)。[引自:Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6):849-863.]
Figure 6-25 Id1can interact with SREBP1.(a)Immunoprecipitations were carried out using anti-SREBP1 antibody, and coimmunoprecipitated Id1 was detected by Western blot using anti-Flag antibody(top panel). Then Immunoprecipitations were carried out using anti-Flag antibody, and coimmunoprecipitated SREBP1 was detected by Western blot using anti-SREBP1 antibody(bottom panel).As a negative control, mouse control IgG was used for immunoprecipitation(n=3).(b)Colocalization of SREBP1 and Id1 in ECs. ECs were stained with a rabbit anti-Id1 polyclonal antibody(green)or a mouse anti–SREBP1 monoclonal antibody(red). White arrow indicates the colocalization of red fluorescence and green fluorescence(n=5).(c)Western blot was used to analysis the protein level of SREBP1 in Flag-con, Flag-Id1, si-con and si-Id1 cells.(d)Quantitative analysis of SREBP1 expression in Flag-con, Flag-Id1, si-con and si-Id1 groups(n=3).[Adapted from: Zhang K, et al. A novel role of Id1 in regulating oscillatory shear stress-mediated lipid uptake in endothelial cells[J]. Ann Biomed Eng, 2018, 46(6):849-863.]