知识效果的意义与未来研究方向
本章用大量篇幅分析了知识获取作为一种媒介效果的研究脉络,并着重梳理了影响知识获取的宏观与微观因素。通过这些讨论,我们得以了解主流传播研究中对待和理解“知识”的方式。在这一系列研究中,知识多数时候被视为一种结果性变量(outcome variable)。从规范性的角度,知识被看作一种理想的状态。也就是说,很多文献都试图解析什么样的因素能够促进或阻碍知识的获取。我们不禁要问,当人们从新闻中获取了知识之后又会如何?当然,在本书的开头,我们已经从规范性的角度讨论了公共知识的意义。那么从具体的研究和理论出发,知识获取又有什么样的意义呢?换言之,知识能不能作为某种前置变量去预测其他变量呢?
知识作为预测变量有三方面的可能性。首先,从政治传播的内部逻辑出发,获取政治知识是人们形成政治认知的核心过程。例如,很多研究都揭示了知识与个体效能感(efficacy)之间的显著关系。人们获取了充分的公共事务知识,会增强他们对于自身改变外部世界能力的认知。所谓“知识就是力量”,知识有助于提高个体参与公共事务的信心。麦克劳德等人的研究就发现了从媒介使用到知识获取再到外部效能(external efficacy)之间的正向相关关系[97]。此外,很多研究也发现了知识与行动之间的显著关系。例如,Kim等学者的研究就揭示了知识与政治效能、线下政治参与以及线上政治参与之间存在显著的关联[98]。
其次,在风险传播和健康传播领域,很多研究聚焦于知识获取所指向的态度性或行为性结果。例如,根据风险信息寻求与处理模型(risk information seeking and processing),个人会评估自身关于风险对象的既有知识储备,当他们认为自身的知识缺乏时,会促发相应的信息寻求行为[99]。在健康传播方面,知识寻求与获取往往会影响个体对某些风险或疾病的态度,进而影响他们后续的选择或行为。一组新加坡学者的研究发现,有关雾霾的知识会正向影响他们对雾霾的风险感知以及应对行为意愿[100]。也就是说,当人们对一项健康风险有更多了解的时候,他们会对潜在的危险有更强的感知,进而产生更强烈的应对行为意愿。牟怡的一项研究则发现,关于食品安全与食品安全事件的知晓程度(一种主观知识)同食品安全风险认知与风险防范行为都有正向相关关系[101]。
再次,知识的获取与个体对某些科学议题或环境问题的态度存在关联。也就是说,个体的知识水平会影响到他们如何感知和评估具有争议性的科学或技术问题。例如,当下人工智能产业的发展如火如荼,人工智能技术快速融入人们生活的方方面面。但公众对人工智能的了解却不尽相同,我们有理由相信人工智能的知识掌握情况也许会影响到个体如何评估人工智能的潜在利益与风险。新加坡学者Shirley Ho曾经以公众对人类胚胎干细胞研究为例来检验知识对争议性技术的影响[102]。研究发现,知识对公众关于人类胚胎干细胞研究态度并没有明确的主效应,却存在不同的交互效果。也就是说,知识对此类态度的正向效果只存在于某些特定人群。对宗教信仰程度低、自由主义程度高以及对科学权威尊敬程度较高的人群来说,掌握相关知识可以促进对人类胚胎干细胞研究的支持态度。由以上研究可看出,知识在很多研究设定中具有意义,它可以影响到公众在不同领域的认知、态度乃至行为。
总结而言,知识获取作为一种效果研究已经形成一个相当成熟的脉络。尽管此类研究成果相当丰富,既有的成果依然只是某种基于过往经验的概括和分析;在快速变迁的媒介技术环境中,媒介的知识效果研究也面临新的挑战。具体而言,人们在移动与社交主导的媒介环境中具有更高的选择性,人们使用信息的场景也越发多变。经典的知识效果研究实际上仍然假设了一个相当稳定的大众传播模型——受众会通过规律性甚至习惯性的媒介接触来获取信息。在碎片化与融合化的媒介消费过程中,选择性接收信息——同时也包括选择性回避信息——成为最基本的媒介使用机制。在社交媒体以及自动推荐系统成为主流的媒介环境中,每一个用户都为自己构建了独特的信息食谱,那么学者关注的媒介效果还依然成立么?这是包括知识效果在内的所有效果研究必须考虑的状况。著名的政治传播学者本奈特(Bennett)和艾扬格于2008年在《传播学学刊》(Journal of Communication)发表的高引用论文就曾指出新媒介环境与变迁的社会结构给媒介效果研究带来的影响[103]。在他们看来,当代传播技术体制会催生一种个体中介化的社会(personally mediated society)。其结果是,个人对信息的选择性接收增强,不经意的或意外的媒介接触(inadvertent/accidental exposure)相应减少,政治传播效果研究有可能重回到有限效果的状态。
当然,近年来不少研究试图用更为平衡的视角来理解高选择性媒介带来的影响。例如,韦伯斯特在《注意力市场》中就强调信息使用者实为杂食动物,在数据驱动、个性定制为机制的媒介环境中,不同兴趣的信息使用者依然有机会被某些共同的议题吸引,并形成集聚效应[104]。尽管高选择媒介环境未必真的使人们重回有限效果的时代,但这些争议还是反映了传统效果研究在当下技术环境中所亟待解决的问题。不知不觉中,人们日常依赖的信息环境已经越来越社交化、移动化,算法和数据的影响也不断增强。学者Thorson和Wells将这种混合的信息系统概括为策展信息流(curated flows)现象——个体的信息食谱由包括专业编辑、用户自身、社交圈、广告商以及计算机算法等一系列行动者共同塑造[105]。在这样的混合信息系统中,我们该如何理解包括知识效果在内的媒介效果呢?首先,我们仍需关注选择性接收与选择性回避对知识获取的可能影响。选择性接收并非完全由技术决定,也并不完全取决于个人的兴趣与内在动机。归根结底,信息选择是技术与人类认知实践二者复合的产物。研究者必须持续关注媒介选择性的变迁及其所展开的媒介效果问题。其次,当下的媒介环境还催生了一种娱乐与信息混合的媒介文化。在主流的社交或新闻平台,大量的娱乐信息、实用信息、消遣内容与所谓的严肃新闻处于并置和混同状态。有时候,新闻内容本身也会以娱乐化的形式表达出来,形成所谓的娱乐性信息(infotainment)。如果我们只关注新闻使用所带来的知识效果,显然是偏颇的。越来越多的信息用户正在从娱乐与轻松的软性内容中获取知识。最终,媒介效果研究不能回避的根本问题在于,数字技术对传播环境的持续改造是否会产生质变,以至于我们的信息传播体制正在经历制度重构(institutional reconfiguration)。如果我们的传播体制已然重构,那我们也必须系统地检视与批判传播研究在大众媒介时代积累的所有知识。如此,媒介效果研究的知识体系也将得到重构。
【注释】
[1]“consumption”一词对应中文的“消费”,似乎是一个特定的经济学术语。但在英文中,“consumption”亦有“使用/利用”的意思。如牛津词典中,“consumption”的第一条释义为“the act of using energy,food or materials”。
[2]关于优质信息对公共空间价值的讨论很多,如Habermas,J.(1991).The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere:An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press;Lazarsfeld,P.,Berelson B.,&Gaudet,H.(1948).The People's Choice.New York:Columbia University Press;McQuail,D.(2010).McQuail's Mass Communication Theory.New York:Sage Publications。
[3]参见Delli Carpini,M.X.,&Keeter,S.(1996).What Americans Know about Politics and Why it Matters.New Haven,CT:Yale University Press。
[4]Galston,W.A.(2001).Political Knowledge,Political Engagement,and Civic Education.Annual Review of Political Science,4(1),217-234.
[5]参见Bijker,W.E.,Hughes,T.P.,&Pinch,T.J.(eds.).(1987).The Social Construction of Technological Systems:New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press。
[6]参见Beck,U.(1992).Risk Society:Towards a New Modernity.London:Sage。
[7]对于量化研究,存在很多批评。最重要的一种批评指出量化研究在操作过程中有比较明显的归约性(reductionism),即用简单的、单一的量表去衡量多元的、复杂的社会概念。知识无疑是非常难以定义的,因而从知识社会学的角度,媒介效果研究所处理的“知识”过于简单直接。本文此处对这类争议不作评判,仅从传播学研究的事实状况出发,从媒介效果研究的内在逻辑去梳理“知识作为一种效果”的相关文献。
[8]参见Delli Carpini,M.X.,&Keeter,S.(1996).What Americans Know about Politics and Why it Matters.New Haven,CT:Yale University Press。
[9]Tichenor,P.J.,Donohue,G.A.,&Olien,C.N.(1970).Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge.Public Opinion Quarterly,34(2),159-170.
[10]Carpini,M.X.D.,&Keeter,S.(1993).Measuring Political Knowledge:Putting First Things First.American Journal of Political Science,37(4),1179-1206.
[11]此处特别涉及研究方法所谈到的内容效度(content validity),即所用的量表能否全面地、有代表性地反映所测概念的方方面面。
[12]此处更多指校标效度中的并行效度(concurrent validity),即这种测量方式下的“知识”变量与理应与它相关的概念在事实上有相关关系。比如,理论上一个人的公共事务知识应该与他的效能感(efficacy)相关,而用文中所述的方式所测得的知识变量与效能感的确存有相关关系,则说明此处的知识测量取得了理想的并行效度。
[13]参见Thomson,T.L.(2007).Examining Dimensions of Political Discussion and Political Knowledge.Columbus,Ohio:Ohio State University(Unpubished doctoral dissertation)。
[14]Carpini,M.X.D.,&Keeter,S.(1993).Measuring Political Knowledge:Putting First Things First.American Journal of Political Science,37(4),1179-1206;Luskin,R.C.(1987).Measuring Political Sophistication.American Journal of Political Science,31(4),856-899.
[15]Eveland,W.P.,Marton,K.,&Seo,M.(2004).Moving Beyond“Just the Facts”:The Influence of Online News on the Content and Structure of Public Affairs Knowledge.Communication Research,31(1),82108.
[16]参见Jonassen,D.H.,Beissner,K.,&Yacci,M.(1993).Structural Knowledge:Techniques for Representing,Conveying,and Acquiring Structural Knowledge.Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum。
[17]Neuman,W.R.(1981).Differentiation and Integration:Two Dimensions of Political Thinking.American Journal of Sociology,86,1236-1268.
[18]参见Graber,D.A.(2001).Processing Politics:Learning from Television in the Internet Age.Chicago:University of Chicago Press。
[19]同上。
[20]Price,V.,&Zaller,J.(1993).Who Gets the News?Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research.Public Opinion Quarterly,57(2),133-164.
[21]Krosnick,J.A.(1990).Government Policy and Citizen Passion:A Study of Issue Publics in Contemporary America.Political Behavior,12(1),59-92.
[22]Chen,H.T.(2012).Multiple Issue Publics in the High-choice Media Environment:Media Use,Online Activity,and Political Knowledge.Asian Journal of Communication,22(6),621-641.
[23]使用与满足是经典的传播学理论。在大部分文献中,我们称其为使用与满足理论。但使用与满足并非具体的某一个理论,它更像是一种研究路径或框架。因此在本节中我没有将其定义为理论或视角,而是将其看作一种研究路径。
[24]这其实也是遵循后实证主义范式的量化媒介研究比较尴尬的状况。在量化过程中,媒介使用的测量一直存在较大争议。不同研究所使用的量表也不尽相同。在这种情况下,学者很难从整体上去把握媒介的效果。当然,这状况也与媒介使用行为本身的特点有关系。测量媒介使用行为通常需要受访者对其日常活动进行回忆,这具有一定的不稳定性。随着媒介使用习惯越来越碎片化,媒介使用测量的难度也越来越大。
[25]Chaffee,S.H.,&Schleuder,J.(1986).Measurement and Effects of Attention to Media News.Human Communication Research,13(1),76-107.
[26]如Chaffee,S.H.,&Schleuder,J.(1986).Measurement and Effects of Attention to Media News.Human Communication Research,13(1),76107;Eveland,W.P.(2001).The Cognitive Mediation Model of Learning From the News:Evidence From Nonelection,Off-Year Election,and Presidential Election Contexts.Communication Research,28(5),571-601。
[27]如Drew,D.,&Weaver,D.(1990).Media Attention,Media Exposure,and Media Effects.Journalism&Mass Communication Quarterly,67(4),740-748;Lo,V.,&Chang,C.(2006).Knowledge about the Gulf Wars a Theoretical Model of Learning from the News.The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics,11(3),135-155;Mc Leod,J.M.,&McDonald,D.G.(1985).Beyond Simple Exposure:Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes.Communication Research,12(1),3-33。
[28]Giunchiglia,F.,Zeni,M.,Gobbi,E.,Bignotti,E.,&Bison,I.(2018).Mobile Social Media Usage and Academic Performance.Computers in Human Behavior,82,177-185.
[29]为一种在阐释统计分析结果时的常见逻辑谬误,即用更为宏观分析层次的结果来揭示个体分析层次上的关系。
[30]参见[美]韦尔伯·斯拉姆等:《报刊的四种理论》,新华出版社1980年版。
[31]参见Hallin,D.C.,&Mancini,P.(2004).Comparing Media Ssystems:Three Models of Media and Politics.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press。
[32]Iyengar,S.,Curran,J.,Lund,A.B.,Salovaara-Moring,I.,Hahn,K.S.,&Coen,S.(2010).Cross-National Versus Individual-Level Differences in Political Information:A Media Systems Perspective.Journal of Elections,Public Opinion&Parties,20(3),291-309.
[33]Ball-Rokeach,S.J.,&DeFleur,M.L.(1976).A Dependency Model of Mass-media Effects.Communication Research,3(1),3-21.
[34]Shen,F.(2009).An Economic Theory of Political Communication Effects:How the Economy Conditions Political Learning.Communication Theory,19(4),374-396.
[35]Carpini,M.X.D.,Keeter,S.,&Kennamer,J.D.(1994).Effects of the News Media Environment on Citizen Knowledge of State Politics and Government.Journalism&Mass Communication Quarterly,71(2),443-456.
[36]Mc Leod,J.M.,Scheufele,D.A.,&Moy,P.(1999).Community,Communication,and Participation:The Role of Mass Media and Interpersonal Discussion in Local Political Participation.Political Communication,16(3),315-336.
[37]Viswanath,K.,Kosicki,G.M.,Fredin,E.S.,&Park,E.(2000).Local Community Ties,Community-boundedness,and Local Public Affairs Knowledge Gaps.Communication-Research,27(1),27-5.
[38]参见Prior,M.(2007).Post-broadcast Democracy:How Media Choice Increases Inequality in Political Involvement and Polarizes Elections.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press。
[39]参见Webster,J.G.(2014).The Marketplace of Attention:How Audiences Take Shape in a Digital Age.Cambridge,MA:MIT Press。
[40]参见Rogers,E.M.(1983).Diffusion of Innovations.New York:The Free Press。
[41]Tichenor,P.J.,Donohue,G.A.,&Olien,C.N.(1970).Mass Media Flow and Differential Growth in Knowledge.Public Opinion Quarterly,34(2),159-170.
[42]Jerit,J.,Barabas,J.,&Bolsen,T.(2006).Citizen,Knowledge,and the Information Environment.American Journal of Political Science,50(2),266-282.
[43]Kwak,N.(1999).Revisiting the Knowledge Gap Hypothesis:Education,Motivation,and Media Use.Communication Research,26(4),385-413.
[44]Bonfadelli,H.(2002).The Internet and Knowledge Gaps:A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation.European Journal of Communication,17(1),65-84.
[45]Shen,F.(2009).An Economic Theory of Political Communication Effects:How the Economy Conditions Political Learning.Communication Theory,19(4),374-396.
[46]Luskin,R.C.(1990).Explaining Political Sophistication.Political Behavior,12(4),331-361.
[47]参见Robinson,J.P.,Levy,M.R.,Davis,D.K.,Woodall,W.G.,Gurevitch,M.,&Sahin,H.(1986).The Main Source:Learning from Television News.Beverly Hills,CA:Sage Publications。
[48]Frazer,E.,&Macdonald,K.(2003).Sex Differences in Political Knowledge in Britain.Political Studies,51(1),67-83;Hayes,B.C.(2013).Gender,Scientific Knowledge,and Attitudes toward the Environment:A Cross-National Analysis.Political Research Quarterly,54(3),657-671.
[49]Vincent,R.C.,&Basil,M.D.(1997).College Students'News Gratifications,Media use,and Current Events Knowledge.Journal of Broadcasting&Electronic Media,41(3),380 392.
[50]Lau,R.R.,&Redlawsk,D.P.(2008).Older but Wiser?Effects of Age on Political Cognition.The Journal of Politics,70(1),168-185.
[51]如Robinson,J.P.,Levy,M.R.,Davis,D.K.,Woodall,W.G.,Gurevitch,M.,&Sahin,H.(1986).The Main Source:Learning from Television News.Beverly Hills,CA:Sage Publications.;Liu,Y.I.,&Eveland,W.P.(2005).Education,Need for Cognition,and Campaign Interest as Moderators of News Effects on Political Knowledge:An Analysis of the Knowledge Gap.Journalism&Mass Com munication Quarterly,82(4),910-929;Mc Leod,D.M.,&Perse,E.M.(1994).Direct and Indirect Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Public Affairs Knowledge.Journalism Quarterly,71,433-442。
[52]Price,V.,&Zaller,J.(1993).Who Gets the News?Alternative Measures of News Reception and Their Implications for Research.Public Opinion Quarterly,57(2),133-164.
[53]如Mitchelstein,E.,&Boczkowski,P.J.(2010).Online News Consumption Research:An Assessment of Past Work and an Agenda for the Future.New Media&Society,12(7),1085-1102;Poindexter,P.M.,&McCombs,M.E.(2001).Revisiting the Civic Duty to Keep Informed in the New Media Environment.Journalism&Mass Com munication Quarterly,78(1),113-126。
[54]参见Robinson,J.P.,Levy,M.R.,Davis,D.K.,Woodall,W.G.,Gurevitch,M.,&Sahin,H.(1986).The Main Source:Learning from Television News.Beverly Hills,CA:Sage Publications。
[55]参见Graber,D.A.(1984).Processing the News.New York:Longman。
[56]如Chaffee,S.H.,Ward,L.S.,&Tipton,L.P.(1970).Mass Communication and Political Socialization.Journalism Quarterly,47(4),647-659;Chaffee,S.H.,&Schleuder,J.(1986).Measurement and Effects of Attention to Media News.Human Com munication Research,13(1),76-107;Mc Leod,J.M.,Bybee,C.R.,&Durall,J.A.(1979).The 1976 Presidential Debates and the Equivalence of Informed Political Participation.Communication Research,6,463-487。
[57]如Neuman,W.R.(1976).Patterns of Recall Among Television News Viewers.The Public Opinion Quarterly,40(1),115123;Patterson,T.,&McClure,R.(1976).The Unseeing Eye:The Myth of Television Power in National Politics.New York:G.P.Putnam。
[58]Culbertson,H.M.,&Stempel,G.H.(1986).How Media Use and Reliance Affect Knowledge Level.Communication Research,13(4),579-602.
[59]如Eveland,W.P.(2001).The Cognitive Mediation Model of Learning from the News:Evidence from Nonelection,Off-Year Election,and Presidential Election Contexts.Communication Research,28(5),571-601;Lo,V.,&Chang,C.(2006).Knowledge about the Gulf Wars:A Theoretical Model of Learning from the News.The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics,11(3),135-155。
[60]中国互联网信息中心:第42次《中国互联网络发展状况统计报告》(2018年版),https://www.cnnic.net.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwxzbg/hlwtjbg/201808/P020180820630889299840.pdf,2019年9月6日。
[61]Tewksbury,D.,&Althaus,S.L.(2000).Differences in Knowledge Acquisition among Readers of the Paper and Online Versions of a National Newspaper.Journalism&Mass Communication Quarterly,77(3),457-479.
[62]Eveland,W.P.,&Dunwoody,S.(2002).An Investigation of Elaboration and Selective Scanning as Mediators of Learning from the Web Versus Print.Journal of Broadcasting&Electronic Media,46(1),34-53.
[63]Eveland,W.P.,Marton,K.,&Seo,M.(2004).Moving Beyond“Just the Facts”The Influence of Online News on the Content and Structure of Public Affairs Knowledge.Communication Research,31(1),82108.
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