维利与业界之间的周旋

二、维利与业界之间的周旋

通过考察维利与食品药品业界之间的互动或可对双方就食品药品纯净运动的态度和相互攻防一窥究竟。

不论是哪一层级,立法在任何一个国家都会涉及甚至触动相应业界的利益,它实际上是社会资源的整合和再分配过程,尤其像食品药品这样的公共立法更是如此。维利所要推动的也正是这样一部全国性食品药品监管法律,它不仅涵盖全民在内,而且必然会波及食品药品行业自身,因此堪称美国食品药品监管的一部“大法”。在推动立法的过程中,维利也需要处理好与食品药品业界之间的关系。若无法与业界达成共识,法律在国会的通关之路也将会变得异常艰难。对维利而言,要想取得食品药品纯净运动的胜利,必须迈过食品药品业界这道门槛。本书选取维利与威士忌生产者之间的互动为例来说明维利在此过程中的折冲樽俎和业界的应对。

威士忌酒源自英国,是全世界最为著名的优质蒸馏酒之一。按产地划分,有苏格兰威士忌、爱尔兰威士忌、美国威士忌、日本威士忌和加拿大威士忌。就美国来说,美国威士忌的最早产地可溯至弗吉尼亚、马里兰和宾夕法尼亚三地。发展至今,美国威士忌的产地大多分布于南方,“威士忌的故事也成为美国南方故事的一部分”[204]。威士忌不仅被用于宴饮餐会时调节气氛,而且成为重要的贸易商品。到南北战争结束时,美国国内的威士忌贸易发展势头良好,对其开征的税收也已成为政府资金的重要来源。从1876年至1904年间,有超过一半的联邦收入来自酒类税。[205]截至目前,美国仍是全世界著名的威士忌产地,也是威士忌重要的消费国。

若以酿造工艺来区分,美国威士忌主要有纯威士忌、混合威士忌和淡威士忌(Light Whiskey)这三大类。相比于前两者,淡威士忌系新式品种,此处主要围绕维利和前两种威士忌生产者之间的关系来展开论述。

生产威士忌最为古老的方法是通过蒸馏谷物来进行。[206]但随着酿酒工业的发展,不同条件下以相异配方和原料为基础也能酿造各类威士忌。19世纪末的美国就通行两种威士忌酿造的方法,其产品分别为纯威士忌和混合威士忌。[207]

顾名思义,纯威士忌的原料来源较为单一,主要为玉米、黑麦、大麦或小麦,酿制过程中也不与其他威士忌或谷类中性酒精相混合,制成后则需放入炭熏过的橡木桶中至少陈酿两年。美国产的纯威士忌并不像苏格兰纯麦芽威士忌那样,只用一种大麦芽酿造,而是以某一种谷物为主(一般不得少于51%),再加入其他原料。混合威士忌则由20%左右的纯威士忌和其他威士忌混合而成。因此,混合威士忌不仅酿造工艺较之纯威士忌简单,而且销售价格也相对便宜,占据当时美国威士忌市场的85%。[208]面对这两种威士忌,维利所要做的就是判定何者为掺假产品?最终,维利选择了纯威士忌,而他究竟又是如何考虑的呢?

纯威士忌虽然迟至1868年南北战争结束后方才逐渐流行开来,但这并未影响到它此后的快速发展之路。1870年,美国国会通过一项法案,内中要求纯威士忌的窖藏过程必须在政府监督之下进行,且需将一绿色标记粘贴于成品之上以示区别。纯威士忌生产者则利用这一机会趁势将此标记界定为对产品质量的保证,以此争夺市场份额,从而在与混合威士忌的竞争中取得了优势。[209]对此做法,混合威士忌生产者极为不满。作为他们的联合组织——全国酒类批发商(National Wholesale Liquor Dealers)所雇的律师,来自圣路易的沃里克·休(Warwick M.Hough)于1903年秋与维利会面于华盛顿。休向维利说明国会法案将会使混合威士忌生产者陷入困境,这对他们来说十分不公平,特别是其中要求混合威士忌生产者标注原料成分这一做法无疑将使他们处于更为被动的境地,毕竟纯威士忌生产者并不需要这样做。对于休的要求,维利表示可以理解,也答应在未来通过的联邦监管法中不要求混合威士忌生产者标明成分。维利希望休和广大混合威士忌生产者不必担心他所推动的联邦监管法,因为他只关注产品是否掺假。但维利也警告休一旦混合威士忌生产者反对联邦监管法的通过,那么,他们将被曝光于媒体聚光灯下,而一切后果和责任都将由混合威士忌生产者来担负。显然,此时的维利已经熟谙与业界相处之道。为了推动联邦监管法,已有所松动的维利事实上已经默认了一定程度的妥协非常有必要。

与休晤谈时显得公事公办的维利却与纯威士忌生产者保持着友好往来,维利为何如此青睐纯威士忌?这一方面与维利自小的生活背景有关,维利家乡所在的印第安纳州南部毗邻美国威士忌产地之一的肯塔基州,他个人对威士忌的生产也比较熟悉和了解;另一方面也与维利后天所养成的中产阶级生活方式和习惯有着千丝万缕的联系。维利对于在何种场合下使用哪种威士忌有着严格界分:他认为纯威士忌应主要提供给包括他在内的城市中产阶级和乡村绅士,而较为便宜的混合威士忌则应主要向工人阶级和城市贫民出售。[210]维利虽然在休面前保证中立,但其内心深处已经认定混合威士忌系掺假产品,需要对其严加监管。在维利眼中,以谷物为酿造原料,并于橡木桶中陈放经年的纯威士忌才是真正意义上的原装威士忌。[211]通过上述对比,维利此举可谓一石二鸟:既拉拢混合威士忌,又确保纯威士忌将被视为纯净产品。维利之所以会采用两面手法,除了与其自身的喜好有关外,其实也是维利希望借此避免失去以禁酒为目标之一的妇女改革团体对食品药品纯净运动的全力支持和配合。更为本质的还在于反映了维利一直所坚持的原则:一部联邦监管法应包含所有食品在内,不能有任何例外。[212]

总之,维利在对待食品是否掺假这一问题上一贯坚持自己的信念,甚至已经有些固执,从他与两种威士忌生产者之间的交往中便能体会其中一二。这也可以说明维利是一个行事极为讲究策略之人。为了推动立法,维利非常善于面对公众表达自己的观点,通过频频撰写文章、发表演讲以及举办有关掺假食品药品的实物展览来与民众互动,以使更多人知悉他所致力的事业,并加入到食品药品纯净运动中来。[213]

对于食品药品业界来说,他们对待食品药品纯净运动的态度与其自身企业规模的大小呈正相关。一般来说,大企业为了能够获得更大的市场份额和良好的竞争环境,乐于见到联邦政府通过全国性监管法律净化市场环境,而立足于地方的小企业和家庭手工作坊则出于保护传统工艺的考虑和对大企业财力的畏惧则会站在联邦监管立法的对立面。从世界范围来说,这股“思潮”不独存在于美国,而是现代化浪潮下的一种普遍心态反映。

一个社会出现问题并不可怕,关键在于其自身是否具备以解决问题为核心的信息搜集机制和发布平台,揆诸世界历史,这在一定程度上已成为区分“开放社会”与“封闭社会”的重要依据。一旦遇有涉及公共利益的突发事件发生,开放社会更易做到在以市场为主体和政府依法而行基础之上的积极有为,而媒体、社会团体和知识精英等民间力量也都能秉持各自立场、分头进击、阐明诉求,建立起衔接民众与政府之间的沟通桥梁,便于民众在短时间内获得第一手信息,作出妥适选择。两相比照之下,封闭社会则由于内部上下流通管道与横向位移方式的缺失而极易使民众陷入恐慌,进而导致不同群体之间趋向猜忌、仇恨、对立与不安,损害整体社会的和谐。

辛克莱、亚当斯、维利和妇女改革团体在食品药品纯净运动中正是扮演了这样一个角色。辛克莱和亚当斯等黑幕揭发者主要运用他们手中的笔将掺假食品药品的混乱状况公之于众,也就是把事实清楚地告诉各位读者,使民众得以知情;维利则是从监管机构的角度出发,以其专业能力作为后盾,对当时引发争议较大的防腐剂和添加剂的运用展开科学实证工作,以证明其确实会对人体产生危害;妇女改革团体所起的作用则主要在于对民众——特别是女性的宣传与教育,促使她们关注并积极参与到运动中来。虽各司其职,但他们的行为对于食品药品纯净运动来说都是不可或缺的。美国社会的可贵之处还在于已有法制规范和人们意识中根深蒂固的法治思维能将躁动、愤懑引入法制轨道,诉诸立法以寻求问题的解决,而不至于如脱缰野马、任其狂奔、失去控制,形成对社会的潜在威胁与冲撞,从而也有利于在更高的联邦层次形成最低限度的社会共识。而这对于任何一项社会改革来说都属必要条件。

【注释】

[1]Jack High and Clayton A.Coppin,Wiley and the Whiskey Industry:Strategic Behavior in the Passage of the Pure Food Act,The Business History Review,1988(2),p.288.

[2]关于进步时代的时段范围,国内外学者有多种不同划分方法,各说之间的出入并不大,本书将其范围大致限定于1890年至一战前。

[3]乔治·萨拜因:《政治学说史》(上卷),托马斯·索尔森修订,邓正来译,上海人民出版社2008年版,第5页。

[4]Price Fishback,The Progressive Era,in Price Fishback(ed.),Government and the American Economy:A New History,The University of Chicago Press,2007,p.288.

[5]Robert H.Wiebe,The Search For Order:1877-1920,Hill and Wang,1967,p.14.

[6]德国著名社会学家和经济学家桑巴特(Werner Sombart)在其名著《为什么美国没有社会主义》一书中也曾高度肯定城市化对美国资本主义发展和形塑民众生活方式的作用。参见维尔纳·桑巴特:《为什么美国没有社会主义》(典藏版),赖海榕译,社会科学文献出版社2014年版,第9~11页。

[7]James L.Bahret,Growth of New York and Suburbs Since 1790,The Scientific Monthly,1920(5),pp.413-416.

[8]Otis Pease,Introduction,in Otis Pease(ed.),The Progressive Years:The Spirit and Achievement of American Reform,George Braziller,1962,p.2.

[9]参见米亚鹏《美国进步时代的住房问题及其启示》一文(载马骏、刘亚平主编:《美国进步时代的政府改革及其对中国的启示》,上海人民出版社2010年版,第239~252页)。

[10]马骏、刘亚平:《导语:为什么研究美国进步时代改革?》,载马骏、刘亚平主编:《美国进步时代的政府改革及其对中国的启示》,上海人民出版社2010年版,第2页。

[11]乔伊斯·阿普尔比、林恩·亨特:《历史的真相》,刘北成、薛绚译,上海人民出版社1998年版,第74页。

[12]乔伊斯·阿普尔比、林恩·亨特:《历史的真相》,刘北成、薛绚译,上海人民出版社1998年版,第94页。

[13]Herbert Croly,A Philosophy for Reform,in David M.Kennedy(ed.),Progressivism:The Critical Issues,Little,Brown and Company,1971,p.32.

[14]Richard L.McCormick,The Party Period and Public Policy:American Politics From the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era,Oxford University Press,1986,pp.269-272.

[15]王希:《原则与妥协:美国宪法的精神与实践》(增订版),北京大学出版社2014年版,第360页。

[16]Stanley P.Caine,The Origins of Progressivism,in Lewis L.Gould(ed.),The Progressive Era,Syracuse University Press,1974,p.11.

[17]Melvyn Stokes,American Progressives and the European Left,Journal of American Studies,1983(1),pp.5-28.Arthur Mann,British Social Thought and American Reformers of the Progressive Era,The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,1956(4),pp.672-692.Axel R.Schafer,W.E.B.Du Bois,German Social Thought,and the Racial Divide in American Progressivism,1892-1909,The Journal of American History,2001(3),pp.925-949.

[18]丹尼尔·T.罗杰斯:《大西洋的跨越:进步时代的社会政治》,吴万伟译,译林出版社2011年版,第47页。

[19]李剑鸣:《大转折的年代——美国进步主义运动研究》,天津教育出版社1992年版,第3页。

[20]Alan Dawley,Struggles for Justice:Social Responsibility and the Liberal State,Belknap Press,1991,p.1,98.

[21]资中筠:《20世纪的美国》,三联书店2007年版,第54页。

[22]Herbert Shapiro(ed.),The Muckrakers and American Society,Heath and Company,1968,p.3.

[23]Louis Filler,The Muckrakers,Crusaders for American Liberalism,The Pennsylvania State University Press,1976,p.145.

[24]肖华锋:《舆论监督与社会进步:美国黑幕揭发运动研究》,三联书店2007年版,第64页。

[25]Carol Sue Humphrey,The Press of the Young Republic,1783-1833,Greenwood Press,1996,pp.41-42.

[26]Gerald J.Baldasty,The Nineteenth-Century Origins of Modern American Journalism,in John B.Hench(ed.),Three Hundred Years of the American Newspaper,American Antiquarian Society,1991,pp.408-409.

[27]罗伯特·G.皮卡德、杰弗里·H.布罗迪:《美国报纸产业》,周黎明译,中国人民大学出版社2004年版,第73页。

[28]张允若、高宁远:《外国新闻事业史新编》,四川人民出版社1996年版,第147~148页。

[29]展江:《译序:惊天动地的改革呐喊》,载林肯·斯蒂芬斯:《新闻与揭丑Ⅰ:美国黑幕揭发报道经典作品集》,展江、万胜主译,海南出版社2000年版,第3页。

[30]张允若、高宁远:《外国新闻事业史新编》,四川人民出版社1996年版,第154页。

[31]Michael E.McGerr,The Decline of Popular Politics:The American North,1865-1928,Oxford University Press,1986,pp.109-113.

[32]George H.Douglas,The Golden Age of the Newspaper,Greenwood Press,1999,p.97.

[33]大卫·斯隆编著:《美国传媒史》,刘琛等译,上海人民出版社2010年版,第337页。

[34]李颜伟:《知识分子与改革:美国进步主义运动新论》,中国社会科学出版社2010年版,第171页。

[35]Anthony R.Fellow and John Tebbel,American Media History,Wadsworth Cengage Learning,2005,p.182.

[36]迈克尔·舒德森:《发掘新闻:美国报业的社会史》,陈昌凤、常江译,北京大学出版社2009年版,第62页。

[37]Robert Miraldi,Muckraking and Objectivity,Greenwood Press,1990,p.28.

[38]迈克尔·埃默里、埃德温·埃默里、南希·L·罗伯茨:《美国新闻史》,展江译,中国人民大学出版社2004年版,第280页。

[39]哈贝马斯:《关于公共领域问题的答问》,梁光严译,载《社会学研究》1999年第3期,第35页。

[40]沃尔特·李普曼:《公众舆论》,阎克文、江红译,上海人民出版社2006年版,第237、246页。

[41]哈贝马斯:《公共领域的结构转型》,曹卫东等译,学林出版社1999年版,第124页。有关“公众舆论”概念生成和流变的探讨参见哈贝马斯此书第108、113、116页的相关内容。

[42]由黑幕揭发运动也使笔者联想到“百花齐放、百家争鸣”的口号。不可否认,美国进步时代“公众舆论”的形成有赖于1787年联邦宪法和《权利法案》对个人言论自由最大程度的宪法保障。依逻辑关系而言,后者乃前者出现之因,没有后者的保障,前者即使出现也将会被压制。抚今追昔,历史的惨痛教训犹如昨夜梦魇,而对于世界历史的学习也将有助于今天国人更好的前行,这或许也印证了克罗齐(Benedetto Croce)那句“一切历史都是当代史”的不朽名言!

[43]Robert Morss Lovett,Upton Sinclair,The English Journal,1928(9),p.708.

[44]Louis Filler,The Muckrakers,Crusaders for American Liberalism,The Pennsylvania State University Press,1976,p.122.Louise Carroll Wade,The Problem with Classroom Use of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle,American Studies,1991(2),p.81.

[45]Robert Morss Lovett,Upton Sinclair,The English Journal,1928(9),p.708.

[46]Richard B.Fisher,The Last Muckraker,The Social Orientation of the Thought of Upton Sinclair,Ph.D.diss.,Yale University,New Haven,1953,pp.1-10.

[47]Granville Hicks,The Survival of Upton Sinclair,College English,1943(4),p.116.

[48]Arlene Finger Kantor,Upton Sinclair and the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906,American Journal of Public Health,1976(12),p.1203.

[49]美国19世纪末的著名乌托邦社会主义者,1886年出版《回顾》一书,旨在批判当时美国的工业资本主义,并以浪漫手法描绘了一个美好的乌托邦社会景象。1889年写过一本颇为畅销的科幻小说,描写一名波士顿医生从1887年长眠至2000年,一觉醒来发现世界已经完全改变。书中形容的那个物质富足、没有商品竞争、充满快乐的波士顿很大程度上即是作者心目中美好乌托邦的写照。

[50]Louise Carroll Wade,The Problem with Classroom Use of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle,American Studies,1991(2),p.82.

[51]James Boylan,The Long and the Short of The Jungle,Journalism History,2008(3),p.165.

[52]Upton Sinclair,The Autobiography of Upton Sinclair,Harcourt Brace&World,1962,p.109.

[53]Lawrence W.Reed,On Upton Sinclair’s the Jungle:How a Food Safety Myth Became a Legend,Consumers’Research Magazine,1995(2),p.23.Louise Carroll Wade,The Problem with Classroom Use of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle,American Studies,1991(2),pp.82-83.Christine Scriabine,Upton Sinclair and the Writing of The Jungle,Chicago History,1981(10),pp.27-30.阿道夫·史密斯(Adolphe Smith)、艾吉·西蒙斯(Algie M.Simons)和欧内斯特·普尔(Ernest Poole)这三人的调查对辛克莱写作有着重要帮助。史密斯作为英国社会主义者和国际肉品贸易专家于1904年秋参加在圣路易斯举办的肺结核学术会议,期间曾前往芝加哥考察肉类生产情况,他将所见所闻在著名医学期刊《柳叶刀》(Lancet)上发表,并就相关情况以及欧洲肉类检疫发展水平与辛克莱进行了通信交流。西蒙斯为美国社会主义者和《国际社会主义评论》编辑,他则以其之前在屠场内的工作经历为辛克莱写作《屠场》尽可能提供有用素材。普尔是一名律师,曾受《展望》(Outlook)杂志之派前来芝加哥报道1904年的工人罢工,而他在后续文章中曾经写过一个关于立陶宛移民工人的故事,内中同样涉及工资奴隶制。

[54]Carl William Thompson,Labor in the Packing Industry,Journal of Political Economy,1907(2),pp.88-108.Molly C.Davis,Jungle Redux:Meat Industry Reform in the Progressive Era and Contemporary Applications,Bachelor Degree,diss.,Ohio Uinversity,Athens,2010,p.33.Leslie A.Levin,One Man’s Meat is Another Man’s Poison:Imagery of Wholesomeness in the Discourse of Meatpacking from 1900-1910,Journal of American and Comparative Cultures,2001(1),p.9.

[55]Upton Sinclair,The Autobiography of Upton Sinclair,Harcourt Brace&World,1962,p.112.

[56]James Boylan,The Long and the Short of The Jungle,Journalism History,2008(3),p.166.

[57]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第53页。

[58]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第50页。

[59]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第57页。

[60]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第132页。

[61]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第111页。

[62]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第135页。

[63]1900年,美国工业成人劳动力总人数已达500万,其中的1/5为妇女,1/3的受雇妇女年龄在14~24岁之间。美国童工的人数在这一年也已达到300万,其中20%的童工年龄在5~15岁之间。据调查所知,1907—1908年,匹兹堡一地工作的妇女中即有60%的人的周工资在7美元以下。参见Leslie Woodcock Tentler,Wage-Earning Women:Industrial Work and Family Life in the United States,1900-1930,Oxford University Press,1979.

[64]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第131页。

[65]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第104页。

[66]厄普顿·辛克莱:《屠场》,肖乾等译,人学出版社1979年版,第128页。

[67]肖华锋:《〈屠场〉与美国纯净食品运动》,载《江西财经大学学报》2003年第1期,第96页。

[68]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.230.

[69]Molly C.Davis,Jungle Redux:Meat Industry Reform in the Progressive Era and Contemporary Applications,Bachelor Degree,diss.,Ohio Uinversity,Athens,2010,p.35.

[70]Mark Sullivan,Our Times:The United States,1900-1925 II:America Finding Herself,Charles Scribner’s Sons,1927,p.472.

[71]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.224.

[72]Robert M.Crunden,Ministers of Reform:The Progressives’Achivement in American Civilization,1889-1920,Basic Books,Inc.,Publishers,1982,p.174.

[73]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.230.

[74]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.230.

[75]Mouhamedoul A.Niang,A Comparative Analysis of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle and Emile Zola’s Germinal,Master Degree.diss.,East Tennessee State University,Johnson City,2001.Timothly Cook,Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle and Orwell’s Animal Farm:A Relationship Explored,Modern Fiction Studies,1984(4),pp.697.

[76]Christopher Jeremy Taylor,Inescapably Propaganda:Upton Sinclair and the Structure of Didactic Fiction,Master Degree diss.,University of Regina,Saskatchewan,2006,pp.11-35.Jan Whitt,From The Jungle to Food Lion:The History Lessons of Investigate Journalism,Journalism History,2008(3),p.171.

[77]陈安:《美国的知识分子:影响美国社会发展的思想家》,当代中国出版社2010年版,第54页。

[78]Thomas Connery,Fiction/Nonfiction and Sinclair’s The Jungle,Journalism History,2008(3),p.167.Hugh J.Dawson,Winston Churchill and Upton Sinclair:An Early Review of“The Jungle”,American Literary Realism,1870-1910,1991(1),pp.72-78.Robert W.McChesney and Ben Scott,Upton Sinclair and the Contradictions of Capitalist Journalism,Monthly Review,2002(1),p.2.James Harvey Young,The Pig That Fell into the Privy:Upton Sinclair’s“The Jungle”and the Meat Inspection Amendments of 1906,Bulletin of the History of Medicine,1985(4),p.467.William Bloodworth,From The Jungle to The Fasting Cure:Upton Sinclair on American Food,Journal of American Culture,1979(3),p.467.

[79]John A.Garraty,Dictionary of American Biography:Supplement Six,1956-1960,Charles Scribner’s Sons,1980,p.6.

[80]John A.Garraty,Dictionary of American Biography:Supplement Six,1956-1960,Charles Scribner’s Sons,1980,p.6.Robert W.Coren,Samuel Hopkins Adams,his Novel,Revelry,and the Reputation of Warren G.Harding,The Courier,1974(2),p.3.

[81]有关亚当斯的个人经历可参看如下四个网站:http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Adams,_Samuel_Hopkins,http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAadamsS.htm,http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Adams,_Samuel_Hopkins,http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Collier%27s_New_Encyclopedia_(1921)/Adams,_Samuel_Hopkins.相比于辛克莱,中文世界有关亚当斯的传记资料则要少得多。

[82]“Samuel Adams”词条,维基百科,2013年5月21日(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams)。

[83]James H.Cassedy,Muckraking and Medicine:Samuel Hopkins Adams,American Quarterly,1964(1),pp.88-92.亚当斯1905年在《麦克卢尔杂志》上发表了两篇分别关于结核病和伤寒的文章,在此基础上进一步将触角拓展至一般性感冒疾病和消化类疾病。1907—1908年,亚当斯的关注重点转至城市牛奶供应及其卫生问题。一战后,亚当斯再次将兴趣移至酒精以及药物依赖问题。总之,非科班出身的亚当斯却以其职业敏感对20世纪初美国医药领域存在的问题给予揭露,并参与到改革洪流中,他的努力推动了医药领域朝着更为规范化和法制化的方向发展。

[84]此处借用奥地利著名作家茨威格《人类群星闪耀时》(高宗美、潘子立译,译林出版社2011年版)一书书名。

[85]J.Howard McGcrath,A Fundamental Law of the Land,Food Drug Cosmetic Law Journal,1946(3),p.365.

[86]Louis Filler,The Muckrakers,Crusaders for American Liberalism,The Pennsylvania State University Press,1976,p.148.

[87]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,p.214.

[88]萨利文在调查过程中发现前文第二章中曾经提及的一种名为莉迪亚·平科汉姆的专利药纯属一场骗局。莉迪亚·平科汉姆公司催促女性患者们直接向平科汉姆女士本人写信咨询专业建议,但萨利文经过一番调查后得知平科汉姆1883年就已去世,关于该药物疗效的宣传广告也基本失实。萨利文还访问了美国专利药协会主席切尼(F.J.Cheney),从中得知专利药公司与报社之间存在某种交易,后者为了保证广告收入而大肆刊登宣传专利药的各类虚假广告。

[89]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.230.

[90]Samuel Hopkins Adams,The Great American Fraud,http://www.museumofquackery.com/ephemera/oct7-01.htm,2013.5.22.

[91]James H.Cassedy,Muckraking and Medicine:Samuel Hopkins Adams,American Quarterly,1964(1),p.90.

[92]Gary R.List,Giants of the Past:Harvey W.Wiley(1844-1930),Inform,2005(2),p.111.

[93]W.D.Bigelow,Obituary-Harvey Washington Wiley,Science,1930(1865),pp.311-312.

[94]C.C.Regier,The Struggle for Federal Food and Drugs Legislation,Law and Contemporary Problems,Vol.1,No.1,The Protection of the Consumer of Food and Drugs:A Symposium(Dec.,1933),p.6.维利生前曾出版数部涉及化学学科内多个门类的专业学术著作,如,The Sugar Industry of the United States(1885);Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis(1894);Foods and Their Adulterations(1907);Influence of Food Preservatives and Artificial Colors on Digestion and Health(1904,with several collaborators);1001 Tests of Foods,Beverages,and Toilet Accessories,Good and Otherwise(1914);The Lure of the Land(1915),and Beverages and Their Adulteration(1919).

[95]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.vii.

[96]ACS President:Harvey W.Wiley(1844-1930),美国化学学会官方网站(http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content),2012年12月23日。也可参见Harvey W.Wiley,Address of Welcome to the World’s Chemical Congress,The Journal of the American Chemical Society,1893(6),pp.301-305.维利曾于1893—1894年间担任美国化学学会(American Chemical Society,ACS)会长,在其任内,美国化学学会的会员人数从400人增至1000多人。

[97]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,pp.82-83.

[98]Dale A.Stirling,Harvey W.Wiley,Toxicological Sciences,2002(2),p.157.Wong V and Tan S.Y,Harvey Washington Wiley(1844-1930):Champion of the Pure Food and Drugs Act,Sngapore Medical Journal,2009(3),p.235.

[99]Harvey W.Wiley,An Autobiography,The Bobbs Merrill-Company Publishers,1930,p.13.Anna Kelton Wiley,Its Great Founder Original Federal Food and Drugs Act of June 30,1906,Food Drug Cosmetic Law Quarterly,1946(3),p.321.

[100]基督教新教所开设的星期日(主日)儿童宗教班,最初作为救济贫穷家庭帮助流浪儿童的慈善事业,后逐渐正式化,并扩展到成人,主要进行宗教教育,也讲授文化知识。

[101]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.4.

[102]维利起先就读于印第安纳州的汉诺威学院,在该校获得文学学士学位和硕士学位,1871年在印第安纳医学院获得医学博士学位,其后于1873年在哈佛大学劳伦斯科技学院获得理学学士学位。这些履历说明维利在留德之前就已具备良好的知识储备,前往德国很大程度上是要为了能够在彼邦学习美国所没有的新东西,开阔视野、拓宽眼界。

[103]即便是像历史学这样的人文学科,美国学者也多以德国史学为楷模。被誉为“美国史学奠基人”和“美国第一代最有影响的国史大师”的班克拉夫特就是德国哥廷根大学培养的优秀学生,班氏在此留学并最终获得博士学位。参见杨生茂:《论乔治·班克拉夫特史学——兼释“鉴别吸收”和“学以致用”》,载《历史研究》1999年第2期,第132页。

[104]参见李工真:《德意志道路——现代化进程研究》,武汉大学出版社2005年版,第87~88页。

[105]A.S.特拉威斯:《奥古斯特·威廉·霍夫曼(1818—1892)》,蔡黎宏译,载《世界科学》1993年第6期,第59页。

[106]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.20.

[107]Charles Loring Jackson,August Wilhelm Von Hofmann,Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,1892-1893(28),pp.413-414.Rainer Rilling,The Structure of the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker(Society of German Chemists),Social Studies of Science,1986(2),p.237.

[108]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.19.

[109]Amy Lavine,Monosodium Glutamate(MSG)and Food Labeling Regulations,Food and Drug Law Journal,2007(2),p.351.

[110]Harvey W.Wiley,An Autobiography,The Bobbs Merrill-Company Publishers,1930,p.162.

[111]Wyndham D.Miles and Louis Kuslan,Washington’s First Consulting Chemist,Henri Erni,Records of the Columbia Historical Society,Washington,D.C.,Vol.66/68,The 46th separately bound book(1966/1968),p.156.

[112]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.33.

[113]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.33.

[114]Clayton A.Coppin and Jack High,Entrepreneurship and Competition in Bureaucracy:Harvey Washington Wiley’s Bureau of Chemistry,1883-1903,in Jack High(ed),Regulation:Economic Theory and History,The University of Michigan Press,1991,p.95.

[115]1965年更名为官方分析化学家协会(Association of Official Analytical Chemists,AOAC),参见美国官方分析化学家协会网站(http://www.aoac.org/about/aoac.htm#history),2013年1月8日。AOAC的隶属关系也随着此后美国食品药品管理局的建立而转至其名下,有关AOAC的具体情况还可参见“AOAC中国网”。

[116]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.67.

[117]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.69.

[118]Clayton A.Coppin and Jack High,Entrepreneurship and Competition in Bureaucracy:Harvey Washington Wiley’s Bureau of Chemistry,1883-1903,in Jack High(ed),Regulation:Economic Theory and History,The University of Michigan Press,1991,p.95.

[119]Clayton A.Coppin and Jack High,Entrepreneurship and Competition in Bureaucracy:Harvey Washington Wiley’s Bureau of Chemistry,1883-1903,in Jack High(ed),Regulation:Economic Theory and History,The University of Michigan Press,1991,p.95.

[120]Watson B.Miller,Introduction Original Federal Food and Drugs Act of June 30,1906,Food Drug Cosmetic Law Quarterly,1946(3),p.292.

[121]Paul B.Dunbar,Its Administrative Progress Original Federal Food and Drugs Act of June 30,1906,Food Drug Cosmetic Law Quarterly,1946(3),p.336.

[122]Gabriel Kolko,The Triumph of Conservatism:A Reinterpretation of American History,1900-1916,Quadrangle Books,1967,p.108.

[123]Anna Kelton Wiley,Its Great Founder Original Federal Food and Drugs Act of June 30,1906,Food Drug Cosmetic Law Quarterly,1946(3),p.321.

[124]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.196.

[125]Clayton A.Coppin and Jack High,Entrepreneurship and Competition in Bureaucracy:Harvey Washington Wiley’s Bureau of Chemistry,1883-1903,in Jack High(ed),Regulation:Economic Theory and History,The University of Michigan Press,1991,p.105.

[126]司凯德:《美国甜菜制糖工业简介》,徐德昌译,载《中国甜菜糖业》2007年第4期,第49页。

[127]人类很早便发现糖用甜菜并对其进行培育,古希腊历史学家希罗多德(Herodotus)在其《历史》一书中就曾记载建造埃及金字塔的民工以甜菜作为滋养品,但人类真正以工业方法从甜菜中提取糖则由德国药剂师马格雷夫(Margrave)发明。有关情况可参见Charles S.Griffin,The Sugar Industry and Legislation in Europe,The Quarterly Journal of Economics,1902(1),pp.1-4.

[128]William Lloyd Fox,Harvey W.Wiley’s Search for American Sugar Self-Sufficiency,Agricultural History,1980(4),p.516.

[129]Harvey W.Wiley,An Autobiography,The Bobbs Merrill-Company Publishers,1930,p.150.

[130]Lawrence O.Christensen,William E.Foley,Gary R.Kremer and Kenneth H.Winn(eds.),Dictionary of Missouri Biography,University of Missouri Press,1999,p.200.

[131]Harvey W.Wiley,An Autobiography,The Bobbs Merrill-Company Publishers,1930,p.182.

[132]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.196..

[133]Clayton Coppin,James Wilson and Harvey Wiley:The Dilemma of Bureaucratic Entrepreneurship,Agricultural History,1990(2),p.167.

[134]Margaret Leech,In the Days of McKinley,Harper&Brothers,1959,p.106.Russell Lord,The Wallaces of Iowa,Da Capo Press,1972,pp.133-134.

[135]Michael Kazin,Rebecca Edwards and Adam Rothman(eds),The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History,Princeton University Press,2010,p.87.

[136]Anthony Gaughan,Harvey Wiley,Theodore Roosevelt,and the Federal Regulation of Food and Drugs,http://leda.law.harvard.edu/leda/data/654/Gaughan.pdf,2013.3.10,p.6.

[137]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.114.

[138]Willard Lee Hoing,James Wilson as Secretary of Agriculture,1897-1913,Ph.D.diss,University of Wiscosin,Madison,1964,p.60.

[139]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,pp.72-74.

[140]也有学者将其译为“防毒小组”。

[141]Harvey W.Wiley,An Autobiography,The Bobbs Merrill-Company Publishers,1930,p.216.

[142]Carol Lewis,The“Poison Squad”and the Advent of Food and Drug Regulation,FDA Consumer Magazine(November-December 2002),p.1.

[143]Harvey W.Wiley,An Autobiography,The Bobbs Merrill-Company Publishers,1930,p.215.

[144]Gladys L.Baker,The Face of the Bureaucrat:A Profile of USDA Leadership,in Trudy Huskamp Peterson(ed.),Farmers,Bureaucrats,and Middlemen:Historical Perspectives on American Agriculture,Howard University Press,1980,p.70.

[145]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.155.

[146]The Washington Post,1902.12.26.

[147]Harvey W.Wiley,An Autobiography,The Bobbs Merrill-Company Publishers,1930,pp.217-218.

[148]Oscar E.Anderson,The Health of a Nation:Harvey W.Wiley and The Fight for Pure Food,Textbook Publishers,1958,p.152.

[149]Peter Temin,Government Actions in Times of Crisis:Lessons from the History of Drug Regulation,Journal of Social History,1985(3),p.433.

[150]Stephen J.Ceccoli,Pill Politics:Drugs and the FDA,Lynne Rienner Publishers,2004,p.60.

[151]James Harvey Young,The Medical Messiahs:A Social History of Health Quackery in Twentieth-Century America,Princeton University Press,1967,p.33.

[152]Harvey W.Wiley,Drugs and Their Adulterations and the Laws Relating Thereto,Washington Medical Annals,1903(2),p.205.

[153]Alan Dawley,Struggles for Justice:Social Responsibility and the Liberal State,Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1991,p.85.

[154]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,p.291.

[155]Maud Nathan,Women Who Work and Women Who Spend,Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol.27,The Improvement of Labor Conditions in the United States(May,1906),p.184.

[156]Thomas Dublin,Women at Work:The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell,Massachusetts,1826-1860,Columbia University Press,1979,p.1.

[157]裔昭印等:《西方妇女史》,商务印书馆2009年版,第325页。

[158]Gleon E.Porter,Encyclopedia of American Economic History,Charles Scribner’s Sons,1980,p.991.

[159]余志森主编:《崛起和扩张的年代》,人民出版社2002年版,第227页。

[160]Thomas D.Snyder,Higher Education,in Thomas D.Snyder,120 Years of American Education:A Statistical Portrait,Diane Publishing,1993,p.75.

[161]Nancy Woloch,Women and the American Experience,McGraw-Hill,Inc.,1994,p.283.

[162]丁则民主编:《美国内战与镀金时代》,人民出版社2002年版,第327页。

[163]黄虚峰:《美国南方转型时期社会生活研究:1877—1920》,上海人民出版社2007年版,第96页。

[164]Paula Baker,The Domestication of Politics:Women and American Political Society,1780-1920,The American Historical Review,1984(3),p.621.

[165]张友伦主编:《美国的独立和初步繁荣》,人民出版社2002年版,第429页。“福音派”源于希腊文新约中的“euangelion”一词,意位“可喜的信息”、“使人欢欣的好消息”。

[166]Gerald Gamm and Robert D.Putnam,The Growth of Voluntary Associations in America,1840-1940,The Journal of Interdisciplinary History,Vol.29,No.4,Patterns of Social Capital:Stability and Change in Comparative Perspective:Part II(Spring,1999),p.549.

[167]Nancy Woloch,Women and the American Experience,McGraw-Hill,Inc.,1994,p.289.

[168]Ellen M.Henrotin,The Attitude of Women’s Clubs and Associations toward Social Economics,Bulletin of the Department of Labor,1899(23),p.504.

[169]Paula D.Watson,Founding Mothers:The Contribution of Women’s Organizations to Public Library,The Library Quarterly,1994(3),p.236.

[170]Mari Jo Buhle,Women and American Socialism,1870-1920,University of Illinois Press,1981,p.57.

[171]Ruth Bordin,Frances Willard:A Biography,The University of North Carolina Press,1986,p.7

[172]Karen Berger Morello,The Invisible Bar:The Woman Lawyer in America,1638 to the Present,Random House,1986,p.737.

[173]Ruth Bordin,Woman and Temperance:The Quest for Power and Liberty,1873-1900,Temple University Press,1981,pp.97-98.

[174]裔昭印等:《西方妇女史》,商务印书馆2009年版,第373页。

[175]李颜伟:《知识分子与改革:美国进步主义运动新论》,社会科学文献出版社2010年版,第373页。

[176]Mari Jo Buhle,Women and American Socialism,1870-1920,University of Illinois Press,1981,p.62.

[177]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,pp.42-44.

[178]U.S.Bureau of the Census,Thirteenth Census of the United States,Vol.VIII,Manufacturers,1909:General Report and Analysis,Government Printing Office,1913,p.40.

[179]David T.Cartwright,Dark Paradise,Harvard University Press,1982,pp.38-41.

[180]Eileen Boris,Reconstructing the“Family”:Women,Progressive Reform,and the Problem of Social Control,in Noralee Frankel and Nancy S.Dye(eds.),Gender,Class,Race,and Reform in the Progressive Era,The University Press of Kentucky,1991,p.73.

[181]Regina Markell Morantz,Making Women Modern:Middle Class Women and Health Reform in 19th Century America,Journal of Social History,1977(4),p.491.

[182]David M.Katzman,Seven Days a Week:Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing America,University of Illinois Press,1981,p.267.

[183]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,p.59.

[184]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,p.67.

[185]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,p.93.

[186]Carl L.Alsberg,Progressive in Federal Food Control,in Maryck P.Ravenel(ed.),A Half Century of Public Health,American Public Health Association,1921,pp.212-213.

[187]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,p.135.

[188]Lorine Swainston Goodwin,The Pure Food,Drink,and Drug Crusaders,1879-1914,McFarland&Company,Inc.,Publishers,1999,p.73.

[189]普列汉诺夫:《论个人在历史上的作用问题》,王荫庭译,商务印书馆2010年版,第113页。

[190]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.183.

[191]Anne Firor Scott,Making the Invisible Woman Visible,University of Illinois Press,1984,p.152.

[192]Beatrice Faust,Feminism Then and Now,The Australian Quarterly,1974(1),p.24.

[193]Paul Burstein,The Impact of Public Opinion on Public Policy:A Review and an Agenda,Political Research Quarterly,2003(1),pp.29-30.

[194]Vjollca Sadiraj,Jan Tuinstra and Frans Van Winden,Interest Group Size Dynamics and Policymaking,Public Choice,2005(3/4),p.271.

[195]此处借用北京大学历史学系王希教授《原则与妥协:美国宪法的精神与实践》一书的标题。

[196]William P.Browne,Benefits and Membership:A Reappraisal of Interest Group Activity,The Western Political Quarterly,1976(2),p.259.

[197]Robert H.Salisbury,John P.Heinz,Edward O.Laumann and Robert L.Nelson,Who Works with Whom?Interest Group Alliances and Opposition,The American Political Science Review,1987(4),p.1228.

[198]Ilyse D.Barkan,Industry Invites Regulation:The Passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906,American Journal of Public Health,1985(1),p.19.Mary Yeager Kujovich,The Refrigerator Car and the Growth of the American Dressed Beef Industry,The Business History Review,1970(4),pp.460-482.

[199]Donna J.Wood,The Strategic Use of Public Policy:Business Support for the 1906 Food and Drug Act,The Business History Review,1985(3),p.413.

[200]Donna J.Wood,The Strategic Use of Public Policy:Business Support for the 1906 Food and Drug Act,The Business History Review,1985(3),p.404.

[201]Donna J.Wood,The Strategic Use of Public Policy:Business Support for the 1906 Food and Drug Act,The Business History Review,1985(3),p.404.

[202]Donna J.Wood,The Strategic Use of Public Policy:Business Support for the 1906 Food and Drug Act,The Business History Review,1985(3),p.430.

[203]Donna J.Wood,The Strategic Use of Public Policy:Business Support for the 1906 Food and Drug Act,The Business History Review,1985(3),p.432.

[204]Mark H.Waymack and James F.Harris,The Book of Classic American Whiskeys,Open Court Publishing Company,1995,p.2.

[205]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.165.

[206]Gerald Carson,The Social Hisotry of Bourbon,The University Press of Kentucky,1963,pp.163-168.

[207]Jack High and Clayton A.Coppin,Wiley and the Whiskey Industry:Strategic Behavior in the Passage of the Pure Food Act,The Business History Review,1988(2),p.290.

[208]Clayton A.Coppin and Jack High,The Politics of Purity:Harvey Washington Wiley and the Origins of Federal Food Policy,The University of Michigan Press,1999,p.53.

[209]Gerald Carson,The Social Hisotry of Bourbon,The University Press of Kentucky,1963,pp.153-157.

[210]Clayton A.Coppin and Jack High,The Politics of Purity:Harvey Washington Wiley and the Origins of Federal Food Policy,The University of Michigan Press,1999,p.54.

[211]Jack High and Clayton A.Coppin,Wiley and the Whiskey Industry:Strategic Behavior in the Passage of the Pure Food Act,The Business History Review,1988(2),p.300.

[212]James Harvey Young,Pure Food:Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906,Princeton University Press,1989,p.167.

[213]作为学者,维利一生勤奋高产,除了为报章杂志大量写稿外,他还撰有11部专著、225篇科学报告和超过60份为政府所写的各类小册子。