结语
弗雷曾宣称,法国大革命已经结束了。本文综述的研究却表明,革命起源再度成为学界热议的焦点,社会维度又重新成为解释危机的核心角度。现在看来,修正派抛弃社会与经济因素,太过伧俗。根据他们的解释,旧制度的崩溃好像完全与社会经济无关。经典学派的解释确有缺陷。社会经济压力未必构成大革命的直接原因,而且也未必直接作用于人的心态。此外,社会身份很难充分体现人与人之间的期待、观念和思想方面的复杂差异。但是,这不等于据此就可以忽视社会与经济因素。尽管经过文化观念融合后,贵族与有产者可能会有更多的共同点,但是近期研究表明,类似的政治术语完全可能传递了不同的期待。我们不能被表面的相似性迷惑。这说明不同社会群体之间的矛盾或者张力依旧存在,只是其存在方式不像经典学派说得那么简单。社会的融合随时都在发生,这意味着社会身份总在变化,而且人们对社会的态度也随之发生变化。一切都是动态的,而不是静态的。话语固然是人们看待现实的棱镜,但是话语本身不能决定人们怎么看现实,更不能决定他们想从现实中看到什么,因为话语本身没有固定的意义。相反,在不同的社会背景下,它具有不同的意义。社会因素和文化因素并不是相互孤立的,修正主义者已经充分证明,所有的社会活动都有文化层面的意义。而相关研究也证明,所有的知识活动都有赋予它意义的社会层面。[40]
【注释】
[1]本文最初写于2009年,为本人翻译多伊尔的《法国大革命的起源》第一版序言。修改后,发表于World History Studies,Vol.3,No.1(June 2016),pp.105-117。后又经修改,宣读于“纪念张芝联先生:聚谈法国史的回顾与展望”(2018年10月20日)。感谢张杨帆同学译校。文字有所调整。
[2]La Révolution française au carrefour des recherches,sous la direction de Martine Lapied et Christine Peyrard,préface de Michel Vovelle,Aix-en-Provence:Publications de l’université de Provence,2003.La Révolution à l’œuvre:perspectives actuelles dans l’histoire de la Révolution française,actes du colloque de Paris,29,30 et 31 janvier 2004,sous la direction de Jean-Clément Martin,Rennes:Presses universitaires de Rennes,2005.
[3]The Origins of the French Revolution,edited by Peter R.Campbell.Basingstoke,Hampshire;New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2006.
[4]Gail Gossenga,“Origins of the French Revolution,”History Compass,Vol.5,No.4(June 2007),pp.1294-1337.
[5]多伊尔:《法国大革命的起源》,张弛译,上海:上海人民出版社,2009年版,第一部分。
[6]Robert Forster,The Nobility of Toulouse in the Eighteenth Century,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Press,1960;Robert Forster,“The Noble Wine Producers of the Bordelais in the Eighteenth Century,”Economic History Review,vol.14,no.1(Aug.1961),pp.18-33;“The Provincial Noble:A Reappraisal,”American Historical Review,vol.68,no.3(Apr.1963),pp.681-691;Colin Lucas,“Nobles,Bourgeois and the Origins of the French Revolution,”Past and Present,no.60(Aug.1973),pp.84-126.
[7]Georges Lefebvre,Coming of the French Revolution,translated and with a preface by R.R.Palmer;with a new introduction by Timothy Tackett,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2015,p.113.
[8]Colins Lucas,“Nobles,Bourgeois and the Origins of the French Revolution,”Past & Present,No.60(Aug.,1973),pp.84-126.
[9]Gabrielle M.Spiegel,ed.,Practicing History:New Directions in Historical Writing after the Linguistic Turn,New York:Routledge,2005;François Dosse,Renaissance de l’événement:un défi pour l’historien,entre sphinx et phénix,Paris:Presses universitaires de France,2010.
[10]弗朗索瓦·弗雷:《思考法国大革命》,孟明译,北京:三联书店,2005年,第69页。
[11]高毅:《法国大革命时代的阶级、团体、自由主义及其他:帕特里斯·伊格内教授访谈录》,《史学理论研究》,1999年第3期,第92页。
[12]Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret,La noblesse au XVIIIe siècle:de la féodalité aux lumières,Paris:Hachette,1976.
[13]Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret,The French Nobility in the Eighteenth Century,translated by William Doyle,Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,1985,p.34.
[14]Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret,“Un aspect de la pensée nobiliaire au XVIIIème siècle:l’antinobilisme,”Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine,Vol.29,No.3(1982),p.442.
[15]Timothy Tackett,Becoming a Revolutionary:The Deputies of the French National Assembly and the Emergence of a Revolutionary Culture(1789-1790),Princeton,New Jersey:Princeton University Press,1996,pp.32-58.
[16]David D.Bien,“La réaction aristocratique avant 1789:l’exemple de l’armée,”Anales E.S.C.,1974,vol.29,pp.23-48,505-34.Bien,“The Army in the French Enlightenment:Reform,Reaction,and Revolution,”Past & Present,No.85(Nov.,1979),pp.68-98.
[17]Rafe Blaufarb,“Arstocratic Professionalism in the Age of Democratic Revolution:The French Officer Corps,1750-1815,”Ph.,d.University of Michigan,1996;Blaufarb,The French Army,1750-1820:Careers,Talent,Merit,Manchester;New York:Manchester University Press,2002;Blaufarb,“Nobles,Aristocrats,and the Origins of the French Revolution,”in Robert M.Schwartz and Robert A.Schneider(eds.),Tocqueville and Beyond:Essays on the Old Regime in Honor of David D.Bien,Newark:University of Delaware Press,2003,pp.86-110.
[18]Jay M.Smith,The Culture of Merit:Nobility,Royal Service and the Making of Absolute Monarchy in France,1600-1789,Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press,1996;Smith,“Social Categories,The Language of Patriotism,and the Origins of the French Revolution:The Debate over noblesse commerçante,”The Journal of Modern History,Vol.72,No.2(June 2000),pp.339-374;Smith.Nobility Reimagined:The Patriotic Nation in Eighteenth-Century France,Ithaca and London:Cornell University Press.2005;Smith,The French Nobility in the Eighteenth Century:Reassessments and New Approaches,University Park,Pa.:Pennsylvania State University Press,2006.
[19]John Shovlin,“Toward a Reinterpretation of Revolutionary Antinobolism:The Political Economy of Honor in the Old Regime,”The Journal of Modern History,Vol.72,No.1,New Work on the Old Regime and the French Revolution:A Special Issue in Honor of François Furet,(March 2000),pp.35-66;Shovlin,The Political Economy of Virtue:Luxury,Patriotism and the Origins of the French Revolution.Ithaca and London:Cornell University Press,2006.
[20]John Shovlin,“Nobility,”in William Doyle ed.,Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2011,pp.111-126.
[21]William Sewell.,Jr,Work and Revolution in France:The Language of Labor from the Old Regime to 1848,Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,1980.关于休厄尔,参见本书论文《从脱离到深嵌:威廉·休厄尔的文化概念》。
[22]Shovlin,The Political Economy of Virtue.p.8.此外Shovlin认为第戎学院将论文奖颁给卢梭的《论科学和艺术》恰恰反映了外省贵族对巴黎文化的敌视(Shovlin,The Political Economy of Virtue.pp.22-26.)。
[23]Daniel L.Wick,“The Court Nobility and the French Revolution:The Example of the Society of Thirty,”Eighteenth-Century Studies,Vol.13,No.3(Spring,1980),pp.263-284;Daniel Wick.A Conspiracy of Well-Intentioned Men:The Society of Thirty and the French Revolution,New York:Garland,1987.
[24]“三十人委员会”(Société des Trente)是革命前的一个政治俱乐部。这个俱乐部形成于1787年底,实际上就是一些人在高等法院法官迪波尔家聚会而形成的一个非正式的组织。这个俱乐部的人员实际上超过30人,其中有法官、教士、廷臣、银行家、学者、律师、记者等。他们观念很明确,那就是这个国家要重生,就要召开三级会议。
[25]T.C.W.Blanning,The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture:Old Regime Europe,1660-1789,New York:Oxford University Press,2002.
[26]Munro Price,“The Court Nobility and the Origins of the French Revolution,”in Hamish Scott and Prendan Simms eds.,Cultures of Power in Europe during the Long Eighteenth Century,Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,pp.269-288.
[27]E.Kennedy,A Philosophe in the Age of Revolution:Destutt de Tracy and the Origins of ‘Ideology’,Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1978,p.15.另见S.F.Scott.The Response of the Royal Army to the French Revolution,Oxford:Clarendon Press,1978.
[28]Chaussinand-Nogaret,Histoire des élites en France du XVIe au XXe siècle:l’honneur,le mérite,l’argent,Paris:Tallandier,1991,p.241.
[29]William Doyle,Origins of the French Revolution.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1980.p.24.
[30]Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff eds.,Wealth and Virtue:The Shaping of Political Economy in The Scottish Enlightenment,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986.
[31]George V.Taylor,“Noncapitalist Wealth and the Origins of the French Revolution,”The American Historical Review,Vol.72,No.2(Jan.,1967),p.490.
[32]Michael Sonenscher,Before the Deluge:Public Debt,Inequality,and The Intellectual Origins of the French Revolution,Princeton University Press,2007,p.254.
[33]Michael Sonenscher,Before the Deluge,p.7.
[34]Michael Sonenscher,Before the Deluge,p.9.
[35]Thomas E.Kaiser & Dale K.Van Kley eds.,From Deficit to Deluge:The Origins of the French Revolution,Stanford:Stanford University Press,2011.
[36]Thomas E.Kaiser & Dale K.Van Kley,“Introduction”,in From Deficit to Deluge,p.3
[37]Jack Goldstone,“The Social Origins of the French Revolution Revisited”,in From Deficit to Deluge,p.70,103.
[38]Peter Campbell,Power and Politics in Old Regime France,1720-1745,London;New York:Routledge,1996;Campbell,“Absolute Monarchy,”in William Doyle ed.,The Handbook of the Ancien Regime,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2011,pp.11-23;Campbell,“Rethinking the Origins of the French Revolution,”in Peter McPhee,ed.,A Companion to the French Revolution,GB:Wiley-Blackwell,2013,pp.3-23.
[39]William Beik,“The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration”,Past and Present,No.188(Aug.2005),pp.195-224.参见本书论文《从国家中心到社会合作:法国绝对君主制研究路径及其转向》。
[40]Keith Baker,Inventing the French Revolution:Essays on French Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1990,p.13.