六、结  语

六、结 语

究竟什么是因果关系(causality)?上述四种传统从不同的角度进行了回答。对因果关系的考察有的侧重寻找结果的原因(causes of effects),有的偏重甄别和测量原因的影响(effects of causes)。在追求后者的定量分析中,对因果关系的理解综合了休谟传统中的“共变”和“相关”以及反事实逻辑和实验方法中的“控制住其他因素”(Ceteris Paribus)。有政治学家尝试调和这些不同的视角,建立一个统一的理解框架。比如,马奥尼认为在定量分析中有显著效应的自变量其实就是新休谟传统下的INUS原因。[33]耶林则提出,原因能够提高某个事件(果)发生的概率,这样的定义为重构因果关系提供了一个“普遍的语义土壤”,但他同时也强调因果关系是多元的。[34]

每种理解因果关系的传统都有其优点和问题,虽然不同的传统往往导致迥异的分析结论,比如对车祸原因的分析,常规关联传统强调醉驾是车祸的原因,而实验操纵逻辑更多关注行车路线选择对车祸的影响,但两者都为我们理解车祸原因贡献了新的知识。在对不同传统的弊端保持自觉的前提下,学者呼吁混合使用不同方法,比如在因果解释上具有优势的因果机制法与在确立因果关系方向上具有优势的实验逻辑的融合。

[本文原载于《国外理论动态》2017年第1期。]

【注释】

[1]左才,复旦大学国际关系与公共事务学院。

[2]Henry Brady,“Causation and Explanation in Social Sciencen”,in Janet Box-Steffensmeier,Henry Brady,David Collier,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2008,pp.217-270.

[3]Insufficient(I)but necessary(N)part of a condition which is itself unnecessary(U)but exclusively sufficient(S)for the effect.

[4]房子起火的充分条件有两个,一个为A和B同时存在,另一个为C和D同时存在。

[5]在因果关系的内涵上,主流观点都将其视为概率性的(probabilistic)而非决定性的(deterministic)关系。

[6]Paul Holland,“Statistical and Causal Inference”,Journal of the American Statistical Association,1986,81(396),pp.945-960.

[7]Gary Goertz,Harvey Starr,eds.,Necessary Conditions:Theory,Methodology and Applications,Rowman&Littlefield Publishers,2003,p.11.

[8]Gary Goertz,“The Substantive Importance of Necessary Condition Hypotheses”,in Gary Goertz,Harvey Starr,eds.,Necessary Conditions:Theory,Methodology,and Applications,Rowman&Littlefield Publishers,2003,pp.76-94.

[9]定性比较分析方面的主要著作包括但不限于Charles Raign,The Comparative Method:Moving beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies,Oakland,CA:University of California,2014;Charles Raign,Fuzzy-Set Social Science,University of Chicago Press,2000;Charles Raign,Redesigning Social Inquiry:Fuzzy Sets and Beyond,University of Chicago Press,2008;Benott Rihoux,Charles Raign,eds.,Configurational Comparative Methods:Qualitative Comparative Analysis(QCA)and Related Techniques,Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage,2009。其他关于必要条件的研究包括Bear Braumoeller,Gary Goertz,“The Methodology of Necessary Conditions”,American Journal of Political Science,2000,44(4),pp.844-858。

[10]David Lewis,“Causation”,Journal of Philosophy,1973,70(17),pp.556-567;David Lewis,Counterfactuals,Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Press,1973.

[11]Max Weber,Selections in Translation,edited by W.G.Runciman,translated by E.Matthews,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1906(1978),p.111.

[12]主要包括但不限于Niall Ferguson,The Pity of War:Explaining World War I,New York:Basic Books,1999;Philip E.Tetlock,Aaron Belkin,eds.,Counterfactual Thought Experiments in World Politics,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1996;Richard Ned Lebow,“Contingency,Catalsysts,and Nonlinear Change:The Origins of World War I”,in Gary Goertz,Jack Levy,eds.,Explaining War and Peace:Case Studies and Necessary Condition Counterfactuals,New York:Routledge,2007,pp.85-111。经济学方面的反事实研究有Robert Fogel,Railroads American Economic Growth:Essays in Econometric History,Baltomore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1964。

[13]Jack Levy,“Counterfactuals and Case Studies”,in Janet Box-Steffensmeier,Henry Brady,David Collier,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2008,pp.633 640.

[14]James Fearon,“Counterfactual and Hypothesis Testing in Political Science”,World Politics,1991,43(2),p.182.

[15]关于共融性(cotenability),具体参 见Nelson Goodman,Fact,Fiction and Forecast,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1983,p.15。

[16]Richard Ned Lebow,Janice Gross Stein,“Back to the Past:Counterfactuals and the Cuban Missile Crisis”,in Philip E.Tetlock,Aaron Belkin,eds.,Counterfactual Thought Experiments in World Politics,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1996,pp.119-148.

[17]Jack Levy,“Counterfactuals and Case Studies”,in Janet Box-Steffensmeier,Henry Brady,David Collier,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2008,p.636.

[18]还有学者提出了另外两个评判反事实论述的标准:与已有统计归纳的一致性以及可 推 测 性(projectability),具 体 参 见Philip E.Tetlock,Aaron Belkin,eds.,Counterfactual Thought Experiments in World Politics,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1996,pp.19-31。

[19]虚假关系是指观察到的两个因素之间的关联是基于潜在的第三个变量引起两个因素有所联系这一假象,即两个因素都是第三个变量的结果,但是两个因素之间并不存在因果关系。

[20]Arend Lijphart,“Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method”,American Political Science Review,1971,65(3),pp.682-693.

[21]臧雷振:《政治学研究中的实验方法——近年来的应用进展及研究议题分布》,载 《国外理论动态》2016年第5期;Rose McDermott,“Experimental Methods in Political Science”,Annual Review of Political Science,2002,5,pp.31-61。

[22]对政治学实验研究议题的分析和总结,参见臧雷振:《政治学研究中的实验方法——近年来的应用进展及研究议题分布》,《国外理论动态》2016年第5期;陈少威、王文芹、施养正:《公共管理研究中的实验设计——自然实验与田野实验》,《国外理论动态》2016年第5期;李强:《实验社会科学:以实验政治学的应用为例》,《清华大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2016年第4期;David Bositis,Douglas Steinel,“A Synoptic History and Typology of Experimental Research in Political Science”,Political Behavior,1987,9(3),pp.263-284;James Druckman,Donald Green,James Kuklinski,Arthur Lupia,“The Growth and Development of Experimental Research in Political Science”,American Political Science Review,2006,100(4),pp.627-635;Macartan Humphreys,Jeremy Weinstein,“Field Experiments and the Political Economy of Development”,Annual Review of Political Science,2009,12,pp.367-378。对自然实验研究议题的总结还可参考Thad Dunning,Natural Experiments in the Social Sciences,Cambridge University Press,2012,pp.43-48。

[23]Thad Dunning,“Improving Causal Inference:Strengths and Limitations of Natural Experiments”,Political Research Quarterly,2008,61(2),pp.282-293.

[24]Daniel Posner,“African Borders as Sources of Natural Experiments:Promise and Pitfalls”,Political Science Research and Methods,2015,3(2),pp.409-418.

[25]Derek Beach,Rasmus Pedersen,Process-Tracing Methods:Foundations and Guidelines,The University of Michigan Press,2013,pp.23-44;John Gerring,“Causal Mechanisms:Yes,But...”,Comparative Political Studies,2010,43(2),pp.1499-1526;James Mahoney,“Beyond Correlational Analysis:Recent Innovations in Theory and Method”,Sociological Forum,2001,16(3),pp.575-593.

[26]James Mahoney,“Beyond Correlational Analysis:Recent Innovations in Theory and Method”,Sociological Forum,2001,16(3),pp.575-593.

[27]John Gerring,“The Mechanismic Worldview:Thinking Inside the Box”,British Journal of Political Science,2008,38(1),pp.161-179.

[28]持这种观点的学者包括Alexander L.George,Andrew Bennett,Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences,Cambridge:MIT Press,2005,p.137;Peter Hedström,Richard Swedberg(eds.),Social Mechanisms:An Analytical Approach to Social Theory,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1998,pp.22-25。

[29]Daniel Little,“Causal Explanation in the Social Sciences”,Southern Journal of Philosophy,1996,34(S1),pp.31-56.

[30]Peter Hedström,Richard Swedberg(eds.),Social Mechanisms:An Analytical Approach to Social Theory,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1998,p.22.

[31]Peter Hedström,“Studing Mechanisms to Strengthen Causal Inferences in Qualitative Research”,in Janet Box-Steffensmeier,Henry Brady,David Collier,eds.,The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2008,pp.319-338;Robert H.Bates,Avner Greif,Margaret Levi,Jean Laurent Rosenthal,Barry R.Weingast,Analytic Narratives,Princeton University Press,1998.

[32]John Gerring,“Causal Mechanisms:Yes,But...”,Comparative Political Studies,2010,43(2),pp.1499-1526.

[33]James Mahoney,“Toward a Unified Theory of Causality”,Comparative Political Studies,2008,41(4/5),pp.412-436.

[34]John Gerring,“Causation:A Unified Framework for the Social Sciences”,Journal of Theoretical Politics,2005,17(2),pp.163-198.