4.总结及结论

4.总结及结论

数据保护法律法规和政策的制定者力求在保护个人免受伤害、允许商业性创业企业将消费者数据用作收入来源以及确立政府访问私人信息的程序和条件之间取得适当平衡。最佳情况是平衡的过程促进了创新,刺激就业,为消费者提供获得补贴内容和服务的途径,确保国家监控只在真正必要时才会进行。而最糟糕的情况是数据挖掘造就了监视型社会,在此社会中,技术创新成为支撑手段,令过去未犯罪且未来亦无计划犯罪的个体的私人生活受到无理侵犯。

新技术增强了公共和私人机构获取有关个人需求、需要、愿望、私人和公共活动、位置、通信和万维网交易相关数据的能力。此类侵入式行为的动机多种多样,包括预防灾难性的犯罪活动、更精准地针对个人投放广告和宣传等。所用的技术本身并不存在好坏,差别在于其所服务意图的好坏。从积极的角度而言,数据挖掘为各类互联网企业提供了货币,用以提供备受追捧和期盼的服务。从消极角度而言,收集和营销私人数据的合法权利创造了广泛干涉个人对隐私的合理期望的新方式,无论个人同意以何种方式换取互联网内容和服务皆是如此。

个人和政府均越发意识到,不受约束和管制的数据收集市场将给个人和社会带来诸多可预期和不可预期的危害。越发清楚的是,消费者必须贡献更多价值,甚至超过其通过互联网推广免费获得的各类补贴服务所能提供的价值。即使从短期来看,同意用广泛的数据挖掘换取Facebook等互联网内容和服务的价值主张也可能趋弱,因为消费者开始了解其生成的数据具有货币价值,了解数据挖掘方有能力对商品和服务进行动态定价并将数据作为可销售的商品出售给上游广告商和数据经纪商。

从长远看,随着消费者数据的商品化,已成功利用正向的网络外部性获得大量市场份额的企业有可能积累更大的战略和财务优势。若消费者无法有效管理数据并在企业间轻松转移数据,此种优势将扼杀创新和竞争。很少有消费者有意愿和能力进行定期成本/收益分析、决定是否应安于现状或寻求更好条件。此种惯性强化了老牌公司维系市场主导地位的能力。

数字宽带服务的消费者同样可能遭受更为严重却不易量化的伤害,因为数据控制方会找到更新、更精确且更具侵入性的方法处理数据并最大化来自上下游的收入。对此行为具有监督权的部分政府机构由于相信现已值得怀疑的经济理论和反垄断理论,无法或不愿考虑双边市场上双方的成本和利益,强调消费者的短期收益可能并不像最初估计的那样丰硕,因而显得无力提供有效监督。其他政府部门则根本没有资源来跟踪数据挖掘技术和使用它们的公司。

政府和消费者都需要提高对数据收集、挖掘、商品化和出售的性质及其影响的了解。此外,数据挖掘方需高度尊重数据保护,以便将政府监管限制在合理合法的水平,同时防止消费者失去信任而放弃交换数据以换取内容和服务。

千呼万唤始出台的欧盟《通用数据保护条例》显示了政府对商业性数据滥用的响应深度和广度。对几乎所有人而言,更糟糕的结果可能是广泛失去对数据控制方和处理方的信任,导致消费者参与极具互惠性的社交网络、商业平台和宽带网络的意愿显著下降。

负责任、务实的利益攸关方是时候达成新的商业条款以限制数据挖掘的性质和范围了。若各方做不到自律和规范,政府可能会以不甚有益的方式加以干预。

【注释】

[1]“‘大数据’一词指的是多种要素的汇聚,包括几乎无处不在地从各类来源收集消费者数据、骤降的数据存储成本和强大的数据分析新能力,从而找出关联,进行推断和预测。归纳大数据的常见框架有赖于“三个V”,数据的数量、速度和种类,随着技术的进步,数据以之前难以企及的方式被加以分析利用,每个V都在快速增长”。Federal Trade Commission(2016,Jan.p.1).Big Data A tool for inclusion or exclusion?Understanding the issues.Retrieved from:https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/big-data-tool-inclusion-or-exclusion-understanding-issues/160106big-data-rpt.pdf.

[2]“外行人口中的数据挖掘多半是指‘试图从一组数据当中发现有用规律或关系的一种数据库分析’或‘运用数学公式对庞大的数据集合进行筛选,从而找出规律并对未来行为进行预测’”。Colonna,L.(2013 p.310).A taxonomy and classification of data mining.Southern Methodist University Science&Technology Law Review,16 309-369.

[3]“关于大数据分析的独特之处,最基本的便是分析的信息量极为庞大且来源丰富多样。确实,对此问题最常见的引用中,大数据这一指称与被分析数据的三个特性相关:数量(数据的量)、速度(生成数据的速度)和种类(被收集数据的类型)”。Helveston,M.(2018 p.867).Consumer protection in the age of big data.Washington University Law Review 93 859-917.

[4]Hacker,P&Petkova,B.(2017).Reigning in the big promise of big data:Transparency,inequality,and new regulatory frontiers.Northwestern Journal of Technology&Intellectual Property 15 1-42.

[5]Ritter,J.&Mayer,A.(2018,March 6 pp.221-22).Regulating data as property:A new construct for moving forward.Duke Law&Technology Review 16 220-277.

[6]United States Copyright Office(2017).Copyright Basics.Circular 1.Retrieved from:https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ01.pdf.

[7]United States Patent&Trademark Office(n.d.).Trademark basics.Retrieved from:https://www.uspto.gov/trademarks-getting-started/trademark-basics.

[8]“美国缺乏对个人信息收集和利用加以规范的联邦统一综合性立法。政府对隐私和安全的规定仅限于部分行业和敏感信息(如健康和财务信息),使不同的保护规定间出现重叠和矛盾”。Council on Foreign Relations(2018 Jan.30 p.1).Reforming the U.S.approach to data protection and privacy.Retrieved from:https://www.cfr.org/report/reforming-us-approach-data-protection.

[9]“大多数美国人(64%)都有过自身数据遭大规模泄露的经历,相对多数的公众对主要机构缺乏信任,特别是联邦政府和社交媒体网站,认为个人信息难以得到保护”。Pew Research Center(2017 Jan.26 p.2).Americans and cybersecurity.Retrieved from:https://www.pewinternet.org/2017/01/26/americans-and-cybersecurity/.

[10]“无须数秒便可将你出卖。不,等等:数毫秒就够了。对你的访问,至少对网络中那个你的访问,眨眼间便被买卖。在网上,强大的算法依托数据金字塔将你归类:你谷歌的内容、访问的网站、点击的广告。接着,向你投放广告的机会被实时拍卖给出价最高者”。Singer,N.(2012,Nov.17).Your online attention,bought in an instant,The New York Times,N.Y.TIMES.Retrieved from:https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/18/technology/your-online-attentionbought-in-an-instant-by-advertisers.html.

[11]Froomkin,A.(2017).Lesssons learned too well:Anonymity in a time of surveillance.Arizona Law Review 59 95-159.

[12]Newman,J.(2018,March).The myth of free.George Washington Law Review 86 513-586.

[13]“动态定价利用消费者的‘电子足迹’——以往的购买记录、地址乃至访问过的其他网站来判断消费者愿意为产品或服务支付的价格。足迹若表明其愿意支付更高价格,则消费者支付的价格也更高,而对价格更为敏感的消费者则以更低价格获得相同的产品或服务”。Adame,V.(2016 p.667).Consumers'obsession becoming retailers'possession:the way that retailers are benefiting from consumers'presence on social media.San Diego Law Review 53,653-700.

[14]Loewenstein,A.(2010).Ticket sniping.Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology 8 243-276.

[15]McGeveran,W.(2019,Feb.).The duty of data security.Minnesota Law Review,103 1135-1208.

[16]National Do Not Call Registry(n.d.).Federal Trade Commission.Retrieved from:https://www.donotcall.gov/.

[17]Federal Communications Commission(2008).Small Entity Compliance Guide,Customer Proprietary Network Information(CPNI).Retrieved from:https://www.fcc.gov/document/customer-proprietary-network-information-cpni.

[18]Bamberger,K.&Lobel,O.(2017).Platform market power.Berkeley Technology Law Journal 32 1051-1092.

[19]Khan,L.(2017,Jan.).Amazon's antitrust paradox.Yale Law Journal 126(3)710-805.

[20]Savage,C.(2019 p.95).Managing the ambient trust commons:The economics of online consumer information privacy.Stanford Technology Law Review 22 95-162.

[21]Federal Reserve Board(n.d).Major Consumer Protection Laws.Retrieved from:https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/Complaints/laws.htm.

[22]Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act,(1996).Pub.L.104-191,110 Stat.1936.Retrieved from:https://codes.findlaw.com/us/title-42-the-public-health-and-welfare/42-usc-sect-1320d.html.

[23]United States Department of Education(n.d.).Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act(FERPA).Retrieved from:https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html?.

[24]Palmieri,N.(2019 p.299-300).Data protection in an increasingly globalized world.Indiana Law Journal 94 297-329.

[25]Kuhn,M.(2018,Nov.)147 million social security numbers for sale:Developing data protection legislation after mass cybersecurity breaches.Iowa Law Review 104 417-445.

[26]Marcus,D.(2018,Dec.).The data breach dilemma:Proactive solutions for protecting consumers'personal information.Duke Law Journal 68 555-593.

[27]Frier,S.(2018,March 17).Facebook on defensive as cambridge case exposes data flaw,Bloomburg Businessweek.Retrieved from:https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-17/no-breach-but-not-secure-cambridgemisuse-shows-facebook-flaws.

[28]Rosenberg,M.,Confessore,N.&Cadwalladr,C.(2018,March 18).How Trump consultants exploited the Facebook data of millions.The New York Times.Retrieved from:https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/17/us/politics/cambridge-analytica-trump-campaign.html.

[29]Federal Trade Commission(2011 Nov.29).Facebook Settles FTC Charges That It Deceived Consumers By Failing To Keep Privacy Promises.Retrieved from:https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2011/11/facebook-settles-ftc-charges-it-deceived-consumers-failing-keep.

[30]European Parliament and Council(2016,April 27).Regulation(EU)2016/679,59 Official Journal of The European Union 59 L119(May 4,2016).Retrieved from:https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:L:2016:119:TOC.

[31]Carpenter v.United States(2018).138 S.Ct.2206.Retrieved from:https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/17pdf/16-402_h315.pdf.

[32]United States v.Miller(1976).425 U.S.435.Retrieved from:https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/425/435/.

[33]Smith v.Maryland(1979).442 U.S.735.Retrieved from:https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/442/735/.

[34]United States v.Jones(2012).Retrieved from:https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/11pdf/10-1259.pdf.

[35]Riley v.California(2014).134 S.Ct.2473.Retrieved from:https://epic.org/amicus/cell-phone/riley/riley-vcalifornia.pdf.

[36]United States Department of Justice(n.d).The USA PATRIOT Act:Preserving life and liberty.Retrieved from:https://www.justice.gov/archive/ll/highlights.htm.

[37]Khamooshi,A.(2016 March 21).Breaking down Apple's iPhone fight with the U.S.government.The New York Times.Retrieved from:https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/03/03/technology/apple-iphone-fbi-fight-explained.html.

[38]Katz,M.&Sallet,J.(2018).Multisided platforms and antitrust enforcement.Yale Law Journal 127(7)2142-2175.

[39]Lobel,O.(2016).The law of the platform.Minnesota Law Review 101 87-166.

[40]Evans,D.&Schmalensee,R.(2016).Matchmakers:The New Economics of Multisided Platforms.Cambridge,MA:Harvard Business Review Press.

[41]Evans,D.&Schmalensee,R.(2008).Markets with two-sided platforms.Issues in competition law and policy,1 667-693.

[42]Rochet,J.&Tirole,J.(2003).Platform competition in two-sided markets.Journal of the European Economic Association 1 1990-1029.

[43]Elvy,S.(2017,Oct.).Paying for privacy and the personal data economy.Columbia Law Review 117 1371-1459.

[44]Accessnow(2018,Jan.).Creating a data protection framework:A do's and don'ts guide for lawmakers.Retrieved from:https://www.accessnow.org/cms/assets/uploads/2018/01/Data-Protection-Guilde-for-Lawmakers-Access-Now.pdf.

[45]Microsoft(n.d.).Journey to GDPR compliance.Retrieved from:http://clouddamcdnprodep.azureedge.net/asm/1736412/Original.

[46]Irwin,L.(Feb.7,2018).The GDPR:What exactly is personal data?IT Governance web site:Retrieved from:https://www.itgovernance.eu/blog/en/the-gdpr-what-exactly-is-personal-data.

[47]Google Spain SL,Google Inc v Agencia Española de Protección de Datos,Mario Costeja González(2014).European Court of Justice.Case C-131/12,Retrieved from:https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62012CJ0131&from=EN.

[48]Vanberg,A.(2018,Jan.p.2)The right to data portability in the GDPR:What lessons can be learned from the EU experience?Journal of Internet Law 21(7)1-18.