假新闻治理的新路径
由于假新闻的弥散如此宽广、公众的情绪如此激烈(而非实质性影响),各界对假新闻的治理力度加大,很大程度上反映了民意的力量,各界对民意的重视,民意不可违。
第一,假新闻治理和关注符合主流话语或者说符合政治正确的原则。因为假新闻是假的,与“真相”相对,采取治理策略是符合逻辑的。目前,有很多行政手段的治理策略,如欧洲和美国通过立法、行政手段等来对媒体、平台等进行规制,这些政策或许由于需要长时间的检验,目前很难看到立竿见影的效果,但是正如历史上很多法律一样,出台了也是尽量避免错误的发生,但始终无法完全避免错误。这种行政手段的效果有待于长期检验。目前的行业规范,如新闻伦理和规范手册等,也是通过立法和行政的手段来约束记者。如美国超过7 000万的传播假新闻的推特(Twitter)账号在短短2个月内被行政手段干预而关闭。谷歌也开展核查计划,2017年为网络用户提供了举报假新闻的平台和通道。杜克大学报道者实验室调查发现,在2018年夏天,53个国家的149个事实核查机构在治理假新闻。[51]
第二,从媒体的角度来看,假新闻治理和关注主要是因为其与新闻伦理相悖,违背新闻专业性要求。针对于新闻专业性来讲,新闻行业规范出台,但实际上收效甚微。以中国为例,2009年、2012年分别出台了记者行业规范约束规则,但是假新闻连年不断出现,甚至有上涨趋势,一定程度上说明了这种规范的效力很低。这一现象在欧美等发达国家也非常明显。尽管这些国家始终把新闻专业主义置于媒体报道实践的第一位,但是在具体实践中不可避免的会出现违反规范约束的行为。理想中的规范型新闻专业主义与实然层面的具体报道之间的鸿沟仍然无法消弭。
第三,从平台技术层面看,很多研究机构和智囊团也参与到假新闻治理当中。例如,有研究者开发了Tweet Vista对话探索软件来区分证实内容和虚假内容[52]。也通过设立专业委员会、搭建事实核查网站、记者创建纠偏网站、平台过滤假新闻、建立事实核查数据库等方式,从专业方面旅行平台责任。[53]。技术导向的路径来探测假新闻的扩散的确尤其重要,从扩散的数量、多样性和维度都可以做到[54],例如基于语言特征的新闻内容提取,以及新闻作者的信誉、新闻的扩散类型等,都可以运用于探测假新闻,从而提升治理效率。
第四,社会各界力量也共同参与到这项治理工作中。教育机构提倡加强用户的媒介素养;媒体大力倡导媒体组织的权威、专业精神;智库部门组成专门的事实核查组来核查事实。科研方面,也通过辨识假新闻、自然语言处理、神经网络、社会网络分析等方法来辨识并致力于假新闻治理。目前治理措施多出于政治合法性考量以具体地辨识假新闻。例如,许多新兴的网络事实核查系统被开发,如FactCheck.Org和PolitiFact.Com,这些系统是通过专业的方式来进行人工探测,其中时间延迟和滞后是关键问题。同时,目前存在的多数网络事实核查主要聚焦于政治新闻的核查,其实际应用范围也非常有限,主要是由于大量的新闻类或者假新闻的传播扩散是在社交网络中进行的。[55]
本文认为,假新闻治理的对象应该是“作为标签的假新闻”。也就是说,要对作为标签的假新闻所存在的土壤即社会语境进行整体性分析,特别对其中衍生的公众情绪和感知进行分析。
第一,从受众对假新闻的接收、接受、扩散来看,更应该考察其不一致背后存在的社会心理机制。假新闻的接收很大程度上与受众所在的信息环境有关,在社交媒体的过滤机制更可能使人们接收熟人转发的新闻。当然是否接受在一定程度上也与人们既定态度、既有认知相关。而从扩散的方面来看,假新闻就像谣言一样在充满不确定性的媒介生态环境下更容易被扩散。这种扩散就像气体一样不容易被觉察,但是在不确定性心理机制作用下,扩散成为常态。对于这之间的不一致,需要从认知学、心理学、情境分析等角度的深入研究。但需要注意的是,用户的接收、接受和扩散不一致背后的心理状态很难避免。
第二,假新闻接触状态会影响人们的政治认知,主要是通过对假新闻的社会真实性感知程度起作用。而假新闻的社会真实感知又受到硬新闻的调节。两者如何启动、刺激人们的感知呢?不同于假新闻的接收、接收、扩散,这种比较明确的受众行为以及背后的心理机制、假新闻真实性的感知也以一定的逻辑在渲染整个媒介生态。反过来,人们如何感知假新闻、感知新闻的真实性在很大程度上取决于整个媒介生态。如果社会信任、媒介信任程度较低,那么受众感知到的新闻更可能是虚假的,更不可能感知到假新闻与真实新闻的差异。同时,这种消极和负面的感知情绪更容易被传染,因此,社会结构、媒介生态的提升具有无比重要的意义。
当然,作为标签的假新闻治理需要遵循一定的原则,即完整性(Integrity)、过程性(Process)和非连续性(Discontinuity)。
完整性是指强调长远性、连带性、系统性眼光。本文基于假新闻在新语境下的存在形态,认为当下的假新闻是一种特有的标签化存在。人们感知到的假新闻不仅是新闻真假本身,还是对整个社会心态、媒介生态这一包裹的反应。由此,在假新闻治理当中要考虑整体性的社会问题、媒介生态的治理。这种整体性的逻辑需要在具体实施中着眼于长远规划,也要考虑不同社会系统之间的连带关系,更需要有一种系统化的思路制定比较有体系的顶层设计和规划。
过程性是指不仅要关注假新闻的源头(如辨识假新闻),还要关注其接收、接受、扩散的过程。目前对于假新闻的治理着眼于通过技术手段等来辨识哪些是假新闻,但实际上从假新闻的存在来看,其直接作用对象即受众有着更多的研究价值。不仅要分析受众的媒介行为、假信息传播链路以及这些行为背后的心理,更要看到假新闻被生产出来之后其被接收、接受、扩散的整个过程当中用户在其中是具体如何“行动”的,也要关注不同行为转换背后的断裂性和不一致性。
非连续性是指要有从结果追溯原因的因果导向型思路,更要重视假新闻生存链条中各个方面对其的刺激、加工等非直接、非必然、非鲜明、混杂的作用和影响。类似于技术对政治传播的影响很难用直接性作用机制来解释。假新闻的生成、传播和扩散在很大程度上并不是社交媒体、媒介生态、社会结构的直接和显见的作用结果。很大程度上是不同社会要素、不同媒介场域、不同受众心态与实践相互作用,并经过一定的变形、混合、夹杂等复杂机制涌现出来的。所以在治理中要坚持非连续性的原则,不能强求有立竿见影的效果。
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