Ⅰ.Origin of Ancient Tea-horse Road
(Ⅰ)Overview
“Ancient Tea-horse Road”is a concept formally put forward by contemporary Chinese scholars in 1990, which has been spread for more than 30 years.From the perspective of history,the Ancient Tea-horse Road has experienced the development process from abstract concept to the concretization of southwest traffic network, and then evolved into cultural label and symbol.The connotation of“Ancient Tea-horse Road”can be usually understood in narrow sense and broad sense.In narrow sense, the“Ancient Tea-horse Road”refers to the ancient trade road characterized by caravan transportation of tea, starting in Yunnan or Sichuan from the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Republican Period, crossing the Hengduan Mountains and Himalayas, entering Xizang, and connecting Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet.In a broad sense, the“Ancient Tea-horse Road”refers to the economic and cultural exchange routes formed with caravans as the carrier between the Greater Southwest China and between Southwest China and its neighboring countries from the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Republican Period, that is, all the transportation modes with people driving horses, whether engaged in tea or other commodity exchanges, are called“Ancient Tea-horse Road”.
图2-3 茶马古道（勐腊段）旧址
（二）茶马古道形成与发展
1.唐、宋——茶马贸易应运而生
唐代是我国历史上饮茶盛行的时代，当时茶已成为人们日常生活必不可少的饮品。这种极盛的饮茶风俗随着唐王朝对外经济文化的不断发展和交流，其影响扩大到周边少数民族，吐蕃就成为受影响较大的一个民族。唐代中后期，吐蕃上层对于茶叶了解非常全面。饮茶在当时吐蕃上层社会中普遍流行，吐蕃贵族不仅知道茶叶的产地，而且熟练掌握烹茶方法，这在客观上促成了对茶叶的大量需求。吐蕃吞并吐谷浑国后，经金城公主居间敦促，唐朝答应交马与互市之地都在赤岭。所谓“交马”并非进行马匹的交易，而是换马，双方使者进入对方控制区后，所骑马匹由对方提供即为“交马”。“互市”才是双方间进行贸易，虽然此时双方“互市”中有中原汉地输入的茶叶，也有吐谷浑或吐蕃提供的马匹，但这还不是严格意义上的“茶马互市”，而只能称作是“茶马互市”的起源。茶马贸易的起源问题至今在我国学术界存在不同的看法，一种观点认为始于中唐，另一种观点认为始于宋朝。
Fig.2-3 Site of Ancient Tea-horse Road (section in Mengla)
(Ⅱ)Formation and Development of Ancient Tea-horse Road
1.Tea and Horse Trade Emerging as the Times Demand in the Tang and Song Dynasties
The Tang Dynasty was a time when tea drinking prevailed in the history of China and tea became an indispensable drink in people’s daily life.With the continuous development and exchange of foreign economy and culture in the Tang Dynasty, this flourishing tea drinking custom spread its influence to the surrounding minorities, among which Tubo was deeply influenced.In the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the upper class of Tubo had a very comprehensive understanding of tea.Tea drinking was widespread in the upper class of Tubo at that time.The nobles of Tubo not only knew the origin of tea, but also mastered the method of brewing tea, which objectively contributed to a large demand for tea.After Tubo annexed Tuyuhun, urged by Princess Jincheng,the Tang government promised to set up a place of exchanging horses and conducting trade in Chiling.The so-called“horse exchanging”is not the trade of horse, but the exchange of horse.After the envoys of both sides enter the area controlled by the other side, the horses they need for riding are provided by the other side, which is called“horse exchanging”Only the“trade”refers to the exchange between two sides.Although the“trade”between the two sides included tea imported from the Central Plains and horses provided by Tuyuhun or Tubo at that time, it was not an actual“tea-horse trade”in the strict sense, but could only be called the origin of“tea-horse trade”.Up to now,there are different views on the origin of tea-horse trade in Chinese academic circles.One view is that it started in the middle Tang Dynasty, and the other is that it started in the Song Dynasty.
宋初，朝廷对茶叶实行禁榷法：商人通过向政府交纳茶钱，取得准许经营茶叶的“券”后，到官方指定的买茶场提货，进行买卖茶叶的生意，严禁茶叶的私自购买。由于官方对经营茶叶权的垄断，已无法满足西部少数民族对茶叶的需求，直接滋生了商贾走私茶叶的活动，并从中获取巨大的利润。这不仅损害了宋王朝的国家利益，而且也加重了边疆少数民族的负担。
宋代“茶马互市”的机构经历了一个发展演变的过程。宋初，在互市中对马的交易主要是通过货币支付方式，后来出现了“买茶司”和“买马司”，但是这时的“买马司”和“买茶司”是两个独立且互不相干的机构。为了解决机构设置不合理的矛盾，提高办事效率，李杞首倡买茶司和买马司合二为一，统一经营。其后，郭茂恂提出买马官通管茶场。宋廷最后采纳了郭茂恂的建议，设立了“都大提举茶马司”。茶马司虽有更迭，但最终合二为一。宋熙宁年间，朝廷为了解决日益突出的财政危机，缓解频繁的边事问题，逐步扩大茶马贸易的范围，便设置市易司，统一经营茶马贸易，其后又设置专门机构管理日益兴旺的茶马互市。元符三年，宋朝下令把熙河诸路的茶叶集中运到湟州，专供交换吐蕃马匹。我国历史上定期进行的“茶马互市”开始成为定制，并被元、明、清三代所沿用。
2.元、明——以茶固边促进茶马古道交通体系的扩展
元朝是以蒙古贵族为主建立起来的多民族国家，疆域辽阔，马源十分充沛，茶叶由政府征调。元初，由政府统购茶叶销售于蒙藏地区，由于加价过高，引起了少数民族的不满。此后政府停止经营，改由商人按行纳税，自行购运。贸易的内容不只是宋时的“茶马”，其贸易的范围已渐扩大，茶马互市贸易已经处于停顿状态。
“茶马互市”发展到明代，其性质已发生很大变化。在实行茶叶专卖的同时，制定了更加完备的茶马市易制度。明初朱元璋为了实现“固番人心，且以强中国”，立法严禁私茶，重罪者凌迟处死。为了确保茶叶贸易的顺利进行，对边境关卡的管理在律例上作了严格的规定，并成立了针对茶叶的巡视监察制度，实行不定期的检查和察访。
明朝还对“茶马互市”采取了一系列的新举措，以保障“茶马互市”的正常进行。
（1）洪武十六年出台了“土赋”制度
据相关记载：“西番之民归附已久，而未赏责其贡献。闻其地多马，宜计其地之多寡以出赋，而三千户，则三户共出马一匹，四千户，则四户共马一匹，定为出赋。”
In the early Song Dynasty, the imperial court implemented the law of prohibiting tea monopoly: after paying license fees to the government and obtaining the“permit”that allowed the operation of tea, merchants went to the officially designated tea farm to pick up the goods and conduct the business of buying and selling tea.It was strictly forbidden to buy tea without permission.Due to the official monopoly of the right to manage tea, the demand of western minorities for tea could not be met any more, which directly bred the activities of merchants smuggling tea and making huge profits from tea.This not only damaged the national interests of the Song Dynasty, but also increased the burden of the frontier minorities.
Tea-horse trade institutions in the Song Dynasty also experienced a process of development and evolution.In the early Song Dynasty, the horse in the trade was mainly paid by currency.Later,“Tea Purchasing Division”and“Horse Purchasing Division”emerged, which were two independent and unrelated organizations at that time.In order to solve the contradiction of unreasonable institutional setup and improve work efficiency, Li Qi initiated the integration of Tea Purchasing Division and Horse Purchasing Division and the unified management.Later, Guo Maoxun proposed that the officials in charge of purchasing horses should manage the tea farm.At last, the imperial court of the Song Dynasty adopted Guo Maoxun’s suggestion, and set up the“General Tea-horse Exchange Division”.Although the tea-horse exchange divisions experienced ups and downs, they finally united as one.During the Xining Period of the Song Dynasty, in order to solve the increasingly prominent financial crisis, alleviate the frequent border issues and gradually expand the scope of tea-horse trade, the imperial court set up urban exchange divisions to manage tea-horse trade in a unified way, and then establish specialized institutions to manage the increasingly prosperous tea-horse trade.In the 3rd year of Yuanfu, the Song government ordered the tea from Xihe Road and others to be transported to Huangzhou for the exchange of horses from Tubo.The tea-horse trade regularly opened in the history of China began to be standardized, and was adopted by the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties.
2.Ruling the Border by Tea to Promote the Expansion of Traffic System of the Ancient Tea-horse Road in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties
The Yuan Dynasty was a multi-ethnic country founded mainly by Mongolian nobles, with a vast territory and abundant horse resources.During this period, the tea was collected by the government.In the early Yuan Dynasty, tea was purchased by the government and then sold to Mongolian and Xizang regions, which caused dissatisfaction of minorities because of the high price.After that, the government stopped managing tea business, and ordered merchants to pay taxes as required and purchase and transport tea by themselves.The trade not only focused on the“tea and horse”prevailing in the Song Dynasty, but gradually expanded the scope of business.The tea-horse trade was almost suspended.
（2）实行金牌信符制度，即差发马制度
明洪武初相继在秦州、河州、洮州、庄浪、西宁、甘州设立茶马司，负责用四川、汉中等地出产的茶换取西宁卫、河州卫、甘州卫等地所产的马。洪武三十年间，对西北各“纳马之族”给发金牌，以为纳马凭证。金牌信符成为明代茶马贸易的合法凭证。洪武三十年（1397年），由于秦州茶马司治所远离牧区，不便于纳马易茶，故改秦州茶马司为西宁茶马司。其机构设在西宁卫城北大街，而市马地点在镇海堡。
（3）实行“收纳差发马匹，给以价差”的茶马比价制度
明初定为“上马一匹，给茶百二十斤，中马七十斤，下马五十斤”，后又改为“上马给茶八十斤，中马六十斤，下马四十斤”。《明洪武实录》记载，永乐年间更降至“上马每匹茶六十斤，中马四十斤，下马递减”。实行金牌制后，明王朝以茶50余万斤易马13800匹，平均每匹给茶不足40斤。这种“贱马贵茶”的不等价交换，导致金牌制的颓废，后欲复用，但最终未能执行。
3.清——西南地区茶马古道进一步发展
清初继续实行“茶马互市”制度。顺治二年设5个茶马司，由陕西茶马御史督理。顺治十八年（1661年），达赖喇嘛奏请在北胜州（今云南永胜）以马换茶。康熙四年（1665年），清廷批准在北胜州与中甸等地举办云南与西藏的“茶马互市”。康熙七年撤消陕西茶马御史，茶马事务由巡抚兼理。康熙二十年（1681年），吴三桂叛乱失败。康熙帝下令追查吴三桂暗通达赖喇嘛之事，北胜州、中甸等地的“茶马互市”停办。在查清达赖喇嘛与吴三桂反叛无涉后，北胜州、中甸等地的互市得以恢复。在云南举办“茶马互市”的地点，又增加鹤庆、丽江、金沙江（在今丽江以东）等处。云南与藏区的茶马贸易，推动了滇东南大叶种茶的种植与生产，云南逐渐成为知名的茶叶产地，与江苏、安徽、江西、浙江、福建、四川、两湖等产地同列。康熙二十二年，平定“三藩”和收复台湾之后，全国大规模战争已经结束，封建统治秩序进一步稳定，朝廷对茶马贸易开始淡化。康熙四十四年，中止以茶易马事务，改征茶叶税款，茶叶交易准予商人自由贸易。经过康熙、雍正两代励精图治，并采取一系列的改革措施，边疆人口得到增长，生产恢复发展，商业繁荣，单纯的茶马贸易已越来越不能满足社会需求。
雍正九年因用兵新疆，恢复“茶马互市”，设西宁等地为茶马司。对新疆的军事行动结束，所需马匹数量已大不如战时，仅靠贡赋形式就可以满足。延续近千年的“茶马互市”制度至此正式宣告结束，茶马贸易转由民间经营。
When the tea-horse trade developed to the Ming Dynasty, its nature changed greatly.At the same time of implementing tea monopoly, the government formulated a more complete tea-horse exchange system.In the early Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang legislated against private tea trade in order to“stabilize common aspiration of minorities and strengthen development of China”, and those who committed felonies were put to death by dismembering of body.In order to ensure the smooth progress of tea trade, strict regulations were made on the management of border passes and an inspection and supervision system for tea was set up, with irregular inspections and visits.
In the Ming Dynasty, the government took a series of new measures to ensure the normal development of tea-horse trade.
(1)In the 16th year of Hongwu, the system of“land tax”was introduced
According to relevant records:“Minorities in the west have obeyed to the imperial court for a long time, but they never paid tributes.It is said that these minorities have been breeding numerous horses, so the imperial court decides to order them to pay tax according to the area of their land.If there are three thousand households in total, every three households jointly provide a horse as the tax.If there are four thousand households, every four households jointly provide a horse as the tax.”
(2)The system of“Golden Token”, i.e.system of“tea-horse exchange”was implemented
In the early Hongwu Period of the Ming Dynasty, the government set up tea-horse exchange divisions in Qinzhou, Hezhou, Taozhou, Zhuanglang, Xining and Ganzhou successively, which aimed to exchange tea from Sichuan, Hanzhong and other places for horses of Xining Garrison,Hezhou Garrison, Ganzhou Garrison, etc.In the 30th year of Hongwu Period, the government issued golden tokens to the“minorities purchasing horses”in the northwest as the certificate of purchasing horses.Then, the golden token became the legal certificate for tea-horse trade in the Ming Dynasty.In the 30th year of Hongwu Period (1397), since Qinzhou Tea-horse Exchange Division was far away from pasturing area and was inconvenient to exchange tea for horse, Xining Tea-horse Exchange Division was set up instead.The institution was located in the north urban street in Xining Garrison and the place of exchanging tea for horse was in Zhenhaibao.
(3)The system of tea-horse price parity of“exchanging tea for horse with price difference”was implemented
In the early Ming Dynasty, it was stipulated that“Horse of high quality can be exchanged for 120 jin (a unit of weight in China, equal to 500 g)of tea, horse of medium quality for 70 jin of tea and horse of inferior quality for 50 jin of tea”, which was then changed to“Horse of high quality can be exchanged for 80 jin of tea, horse of medium quality for 60 jin of tea and horse of inferior quality for 40 jin of tea”.According to the records in Chronicle of Hongwu Period of the Ming Dynasty, the tea for exchange was lowered again in Yongle Period, i.e.“Horse of high quality can be exchanged for 60 jin of tea, horse of medium quality for 40 jin of tea and horse of inferior quality for less amount”.After the system of golden token was implemented, the government of the Ming Dynasty exchanged 13,800 horses with more than 500,000 jin of tea.The amount of tea for each horse was even less than 40 jin.This unequal exchange of“cheap horse and expensive tea”led to the abolition of the golden token system, which was later reused, but failed to be implemented.
图2-4 君利祥茶号
“茶马互市”的产生，实际上是由内地与边疆的生产以及生活方式的差异所决定的，这种差异主要是农耕经济与畜牧业经济的分工。青藏高原气候寒冷，地少五谷，人民多以肉酪为食，而经发酵的茶叶，除有暖身温胃的功效外，还能帮助消化肉酪。因而，茶叶也就成了青藏高原游牧民族的生活必需品。与此同时，中原地区出于战略防御以及战事的考虑，又需大量的马匹以充军需。故中原王朝与西部游牧民族各以茶马互易，各补所缺，各取所需。
（三）茶马古道路线
图2-5 云南茶马古道路线示意图
3.Further Development of the Ancient Tea-horse Road in Southwest China in the Qing Dynasty
In the early Qing Dynasty, the system of“tea-horse trade”continued.In the 2nd year of Shunzhi Period, 5 tea-horse exchange divisions were set up, which were governed by Shaanxi Tea-horse Exchange Censor.In the 18th year of Shunzhi Period (1661), Dalai Lama submitted memorials to the throne for exchanging tea with horse in Beishengzhou (today’s Yongsheng, Yunnan).In the 4th year of Kangxi Period(1665), the Qing government approved the tea-horse trade between Yunnan and Xizang in Beishengzhou,Zhongdian and other places.In the 7th year of Kangxi Period, the government cancelled the position of Shaanxi Tea-horse Exchange Censor and ordered the Grand Coordinator to undertake the tea-horse exchange affairs.In the 20th year of Kangxi Period (1681), Wu Sangui’s rebellion failed.The Emperor Kangxi ordered the investigation on Wu Sangui’s secret connection with the Dalai Lama, and the tea-horse trade in Beishengzhou and Zhongdian was closed.After finding out that the Dalai Lama was irrelevant with Wu Sangui’s rebellion, the government restored the tea-horse trade in Beishengzhou and Zhongdian.Heqing, Lijiang, Jinshajiang (now east of Lijiang)and other places of Yunnan were approved to engage in tea-horse trade.Tea-horse trade between Yunnan and Xizang promoted the planting and production of bigleaf tea in southeast Yunnan.Yunnan gradually became a well-known tea producing area, ranking with Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian, Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, etc.In the 22nd year of Kangxi Period,after the government pacified the“Rebellion of Three Feudatories”and recaptured Taiwan, the large-scale wars in the whole country ended, the feudal ruling order was further stabilized, and the government began to ignore the tea-horse trade.In the 44th year of Kangxi Period, the tea-horse affairs were suspended and tax was levied on tea, which allowed merchants to trade tea freely.After the government under the reign of Emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng made great efforts and adopted a series of reform measures to make the country prosperous, the frontier population increased, the production resumed and the business prospered,and the simple tea-horse trade could no longer meet the social needs.
In the 9th year of Yongzheng Period, because of resorting to arms in Xinjiang, the government restored the“tea-horse trade”and set up tea-horse exchange divisions in Xining and other places.After the military actions initiated against Xinjiang ended, the number of horses needed was not as many as that in wartime, and could be met only by the form of tribute.The tea-horse trade system,which lasted for nearly a thousand years, officially came to an end, and the tea-horse trade was transferred to private management.
Fig.2-4 Junlixiang Tea Shop
清代，普洱府作为茶叶的集散地，以此为中心向国内外辐射，形成不同的茶马古道路线。
1.滇藏茶马古道主干线
普洱→景东→大理→丽江→香格里拉（中甸）→德钦→芒康→拉萨。
这是唐代就已开通的一条茶马古道，清代进入繁荣时期，中途分支较多，例如从丽江经四川进西藏，从大理经永平博南古道出保山进缅甸等等。1973年，滇藏公路修通，普洱茶由汽车大量运进西藏。
2.滇南官马大道
普洱→墨江→玉溪→昆明→曲靖（或昭通）→出省转运北京。
这条茶马古道以运输普洱贡茶为主，全程于清初开通，清末部分中断。官马大道中途也有许多分支，如从元江往东到达石屏（明末以来到西双版纳从事普洱茶生产、经营者多为石屏人），也可再由石屏经蒙自到达越南。20世纪50年代，昆洛公路通车后，滇南官马大道逐渐成为历史遗迹。
3.东南亚转国外大道
云南茶马古道还有多条支线，这些支线与主干线共同构成普洱茶运输网络。其中，茶马古道支线主要有：西双版纳→普洱→老挝→越南→南洋诸国；西双版纳→普洱→江城→越南莱州→南洋诸国；西双版纳→普洱→江城→墨江（汇入官马大道）；西双版纳→缅甸仰光→东南亚各国；西双版纳→缅甸仰光→印度等。
民国时期，随着勐海制茶业的崛起，茶马古道的运输逐渐以勐海为中心，有东南西北四条线路。东线由勐海镇往东经景洪至普洱；南线由勐海镇南下经打洛到达缅甸景栋；西线由勐海镇往西经澜沧、孟连出境到缅甸；北线由勐海镇经勐阿、勐往至普洱。
如今，茶马古道的经贸、货运属性逐渐褪去，但沿线丰富的历史遗迹与民族文化，却散发出更加璀璨的光芒。2013年，茶马古道被国务院列为第七批全国重点文物保护单位，以茶马文化为依托的旅游业、文化产业、特色城镇建设蓬勃发展起来，当年的古道驿站焕发出新的生机与活力。茶马古道作为“南方丝绸之路”的重要分支，伴随着“一带一路”倡议的提出，引起了广泛的关注。
In fact, the emergence of tea-horse trade is determined by the production and lifestyle differences between the inland and frontier areas, which is mainly due to the division of labor between farming economy and animal husbandry economy.The Qinghai-Xizang Plateau has a cold climate, with less farmland and fewer grains.People mostly eat meat and cheese, and fermented tea can not only warm the body and stomach, but also help to digest meat and cheese.Therefore,tea has become a necessity for nomadic people in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.At the same time, due to considerations of strategic defense and wars, a large number of horses are needed in the Central Plains.Therefore, the governments of different dynasties in the Central Plains and the nomads in the west take what they need respectively through the tea-horse trade.
(III)Route of Ancient Tea-horse Road
Fig.2-5 Route map of Ancient Tea-horse Road in Yunnan
In the Qing Dynasty, Pu’er Prefecture, as the distribution center of tea, radiated to domestic and foreign countries, forming different routes of Ancient Tea-horse Road.
1.Trunk Line of Ancient Tea-horse Road in Yunnan and Xizang
Pu’er→Jingdong→Dali→Lijiang→Shangri-La (Zhongdian)→Deqin→Marka(Xizang)→Lhasa(Xizang).
This is an ancient tea-horse road that was opened in the Tang Dynasty.It entered a prosperous period in the Qing Dynasty, with many branches in the middle, for example, from Lijiang to Xizang via Sichuan, from Dali to Baoshan via Bonan Ancient Road of Yongping to Myanmar, etc.In 1973, the Yunnan-Xizang Highway was completed, and Pu’er tea was transported into Xizang in large quantities by vehicles.
2.Official Horse Road in South Yunnan
Pu’er→Mojiang→Yuxi→Kunming→Qujing (Zhaotong)→Beijing.
This ancient tea-horse road mainly transported the Pu’er tea as the tribute, which was opened in the early Qing Dynasty and partially interrupted in the late Qing Dynasty.The Official Horse Road had many branches in the middle, such as those from Yuanjiang to Shiping in the east (since the late Ming Dynasty, most of the people engaged in Pu’er tea production and management in Xishuangbanna were native of Shiping), or those from Shiping to Vietnam via Mengzi.In 1950s,after Kunming-Daluo Highway was opened to traffic, the Official Horse Road in south Yunnan gradually became a historical relic.