结论
我们的分析始于描述美国提供给以色列的物质与外交支持。美国提供给这个犹太国家可观支持的这一事实,尽管很少见诸报纸的头条,但是,如果读者知道这种慷慨施与的实际范围和种类有多么的广泛和多样的话,他们可能会有怎样的吃惊!下面一章的内容,是用文件来证明这种美国对以色列的支持。
〔1〕Joshua Mitnick, “Iran Threat Steals Show at Herzliya,” Jewish Week,January 26, 2007.也可参见Ron Kampeas, “As Candidates Enter 2008 Race, They Begin Courting Jewish Support,” JTA.org, January 25, 2007; Ron Kampeas,“AIPAC Conference—The First Primary?” JTA.org, March 6, 2007; Joshua Mitnick, “Candidates Court Israel, Cite Iran Risks,” Washington Times,January 24, 2007,以及M.J.Rosenberg, “Pandering Not Required,” Weekly Opinion Column, Issue #310,Israel Policy Forum, Washington, DC, February 9,2007。爱德华兹、金里奇、麦凯恩和罗姆尼的发言副本,登录www.herzliyaconference.org/Eng/_Articles/Article.asp?CategoryID=226&ArticleID=1599。
〔2〕“Senator Clinton's Remarks to the American Israel Public Affairs Committee(AIPAC),” February, 2007,登录http://clinton.senate.gov/news/statements/details.cfm?id=268474,参见Joshua Frank,“Hillary Clinton and the Israel Lobby,” Antiwar.com, January 23, 2007,以及E.J.Kessler, “Hillary the Favorite in Race for Jewish Donations,” Forward,January 26, 2007。
〔3〕Thomas Beaumont, “Up-Close Obama Urges Compassion in Mideast,” Des Moines Register (online), March 12, 2007; James D.Besser, “Obama Set for Big Jewish Push,” Jewish Week, February 16, 2007; Larry Cohler-Esses,“Obama Pivots Away from Dovish Past,” Jewish Week, March 9, 2007,以及Lynn Sweet, “Obama to Offer Pro-Israel Views at Chicago Gathering,” Chicago Sun-Times, March 1, 2007。
〔4〕对于麦凯恩、克林顿、奥巴马、罗姆尼、理查森和布朗巴克的亲以色列声明,参见“The Road to the White House: Israel-US Ties,” Jerusalem Post, May 24, 2007。
〔5〕以色列裔美国作家迈克尔·B.奥伦(Michael B.Oren)在他有趣的通俗历史作品《权力、信仰和幻想:1776年至今的美国在中东》(Power, Faith, and Fantasy:
America in the Middle East 1776 to the Present)(New York: Norton, 2007)一书中,对较早时期美国参与该地区的事务有许多生动的描述。他所持的没有明言的观点——他在公共演说中明示了这一观点——认为,美国早在以色列建国之前很长的时间里,就已经参与到中东地区的事务之中;因此,目前美国对这个犹太国家的支持,同以色列游说集团的活动几乎没有什么关系。含有这种意思的典型公开声明,可参见奥伦向2007年的美国以色列公共事务委员会的政策会议所发表的演说。在该演说中,奥伦将美国以色列公共事务委员会本身描述为“一种对几乎长达400年之久的传统的表达;在这一传统中,一个美利坚合众国的想法与一个被重建起来的犹太国家的想法,两者几乎是不可分割、紧密相连的。这一传统是和这个国家的历史同样久远的坚定信念——即对这个犹太国的信念等同于对美利坚合众国的信念——的体现”。对于1776年以来美国在中东所扮演的角色已经发生多么大的变化,特别是自从1948年和1967年以来的变化,这种奇怪的观点却视而不见。关于奥伦演说的副本,登录www.aipac.org/Publications/Oren-PC-2007.pdf。
〔6〕北非海盗是指19世纪初在北非海岸攻击美国船只的一群好战者。他们来自好几个非洲国家。这些国家与美国签订过不攻击美国船只的条约,可是他们后来违约了。美国还以武力,取得了大胜。——译者注
〔7〕如同历史学家彼得·L.哈恩(Peter L.Hahn)所写的那样:“第二次世界大战之前,美国官方对中东几乎不感兴趣。虽然欧洲的诸帝国曾长期卷入所谓的东方问题,即对中东(以及南亚)进行支配的外交对抗问题,但是华盛顿的政府却没有在该地区发现自己的战略利益或政治利益,因而避免在那里被卷入到帝国的对抗之中。”参见Crisis and Crossfire:The United States and the Middle East since 1945(Washington, DC: Potomac Books,2005), 1。
〔8〕麦克米伦也曾写过有关对巴勒斯坦进行处置的文章,“The United States, in Contrast to What Happened after the Second World War, Played a Minor Role”,参见Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House,2001), pp.422—423。
〔9〕有关沙特阿拉伯-美国安全合作的根源,参见Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985),pp.60—68,以及Rachel Bronson, Thicker than Oil: America's Uneasy Partnership with Saudi Arabia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), chaps.1—2。关于《巴格达条约》(Baghdad Pact),参见Stephen M.Walt, The Origins of Alliances(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp.58—59。
〔10〕威泽惕尔的这番评论,出现在对巴勒斯坦知识分子萨利·努赛贝赫(Sari Nusseibeh)的回忆录书评之中。参见“Sympathy for the Other,” New York Times Book Review, April 1, 2007, 13。
〔11〕这一指控是基于卡特曾经在1987年收到的一封信上所写的一纸短笺,这封信是来自一位前纳粹监狱看守的女儿,她是为了保护她的父亲免受驱逐而写了这封信。在这张只有一句话长的便条中,卡特并没有表现出对这位前纳粹监狱看守的任何同情,并且也没有以他的名义建议采取任何行动,他仅仅只是说希望特别调查局(负责起诉纳粹时代战犯的美国机构)能够“基于人道主义的原因,对那些受到影响的家庭进行特别考虑”。但是,这件事情却被用来诋毁卡特,说他在某种程度上同情纳粹主义。参见Daniel Freedman,“President Carter Interceded on Behalf of Former Nazi Guard,” New York Sun,January 19, 2007。
〔12〕Jodie T.Allen and Alec Tyson, “The U.S.Public's Pro-Israel History,”Pew Research Center, July 19, 2006,以及Pew Research Center for the People and the Press in Association with the Council on Foreign Relations, “America's Place in the World 2005: An Investigation of the Attitudes of American Opinion Leaders and the American Public about International Affairs,” November 2005,pp.11—12。
〔13〕这一民意调查是由左格比国际公司代表国家利益委员会于2006年10月10日至12日进行的。结果可登录www.cnionline.org/learn/polls/czandlobby/index2.htm。
〔14〕Daniel Maliniak et al., “Inside the Ivory Tower,” Foreign Policy159(March—April 2007): 66.
〔15〕这就是为什么奥萨马·本·拉登最初想要在2001年9月11日袭击美国国会大厦的原因。他把国会山看作美国支持以色列的主要堡垒。参见“Outline of the 9/11 Plot,”Staff Statement no.16, National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, June 16, 2004, 4。
〔16〕Michael Massing, “The Storm over the Israel Lobby,” New York Review of Books, June 8, 2006,以及Jeffrey Goldberg, “Real Insiders,” New Yorker,July 4, 2005。
〔17〕纳达夫·萨夫兰(Nadav Safran)在他关于美以同盟的书中指出:“犹太人并不是最早在美国对美国外交政策施加影响的族裔或宗教团体,以便有利于其亲族或同他们持有相同宗教信仰的人……就像利益集团政治一样,族裔宗教政治已成为美国生活中多元主义和利益多元性不可避免的后果。”参见The United States and Israel (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1963), p.276。(https://www.daowen.com)
〔18〕在大量的文献中,有益的作品包括Tony Smith, Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 2000); Ethnic Groups and U.S.Foreign Policy,ed.M.E.Ahrari(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1987); Ethnicity and U.S.Foreign Policy, 2nd ed., ed.A.A.Said(New York: Praeger, 1981); Charles McC.Mathias Jr., “Ethnic Groups and Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs59, no.5(Summer 1981); Alexander DeConde, Ethnicity, Race and American Foreign Policy (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992); Yossi Shain, “Ethnic Diasporas and U.S.Foreign Policy,” Political Science Quarterly109, no.5(1994—1995); Paul Watanabe, Ethnic Groups, Congress, and American ForeignPolicy: The Politics of the Turkish Arms Embargo (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984); Patrick J.Haney and Walt Vanderbush, “The Role of Ethnic Interest Groups in U.S.Foreign Policy: The Case of the Cuban-American National Foundation,” International Studies Quarterly43, no.2(June 1999); Max J.Castro, “Miami Vise,” Nation, May 14, 2007; Gabriel Sheffer, Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003);David King and Miles Pomper, “Congress and the Contingent Influence of Diaspora Lobbies: Lessons from U.S.Foreign Policy Toward Azerbaijan and Armenia,”Journal of Armenian Studies8, no.1(Summer 2004),以及R.Hrair Dekmejian and Angelos Themelis, “Ethnic Lobbies in U.S.Foreign Policy: A Comparative Analysis of the Jewish, Greek, Armenian and Turkish Lobbies,” Occasional Research Paper no.13, Institute of International Relations, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece, October 1997。
〔19〕关于反犹主义的历史,参见James Carroll, Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews; A History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001); Edward H.Flannery, The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism,2nd rev.ed.(New York: Paulist Press, 2004); Israel Pocket Library, Anti-Semitism (Jerusalem: Keter, 1974); and Marvin Perry and Frederick Schweitzer,Anti-Semitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002)。关于阿拉伯世界中犹太人的地位和待遇问题,参见Bernard Lewis,Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice (New York:Norton, 1986), chap.5,以及Charles D.Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents, 5th ed。(New York: St.Martin's Press,2004), p.8, pp.10—11。
〔20〕引自The Middle East, 5th ed.(Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1981), p.68。
〔21〕就像一个印度官方的政府委员会在2002年所指出的那样:“从1998年的核试验到(1999年5月26日印巴在克什米尔发生)卡吉尔(Kargil)冲突,印度裔美国人在这些问题上进行了成功的动员,对在(美国)国会形成一种有利于印度的舆论氛围方面起到了关键的作用……并且对他们所关心的其他问题进行了有效的游说……这是印度第一次在美国拥有了一个真正有影响力和有地位的选民群体。美国的印度人社会构成了加强印度与世界唯一超级大国之间纽带的宝贵资产。”参见Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora (New Delhi: Government of India, January 2002), pp.xx—xxi。
〔22〕除了格普哈特的声明以外,本文引用的有关比尔·克林顿、纽特·金里奇,以及其他几位著名人物就美国以色列公共事务委员会的影响力所发表的声明,先前可登录www.aipac.org/documents/whoweare.html#say(2005年1月14日可进入)。美国以色列公共事务委员会似乎已从其目前的网站版本中删除了这些声明。
〔23〕Alan M.Dershowitz, Chutzpah (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991), p.16.
〔24〕引自Samuel G.Freedman, “Don't Blame Jews for This War,” USA Today,April 2, 2003。
〔25〕在《旧约全书》中,歌利亚是非利士人与未来的以色列王大卫进行战斗的著名勇士。——译者注
〔26〕关于利益集团在美国政治中的作用,参见Frank R.Baumgartner and Beth L.Leech, Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Richard L.Hall and Frank W.Wayman, “Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees,” American Political Science Review84, no.3(September 1990); Richard L.Hall and Alan V.Deardorff, “Lobbying as Legislative Subsidy,” American Political Science Review100, no.1(February 2006); John Mark Hansen, Gaining Access: Congress and the Farm Lobby, 1919—1981(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Ken Kollman, Outside Lobbying: Public Opinion and Interest Group Strategies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Richard A.Smith, “Interest Group Influence in the U.S.Congress,” Legislative Studies Quarterly20, no.1(February 1995);Raymond A.Bauer, Ithiel de Sola Pool, and Lewis Anthony Dexter, American Business and Public Policy: The Politics of Foreign Trade (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1963); David B.Truman, The Governmental Process: Political Interestsand Public Opinion (New York: Knopf, 1951),以及James Q.Wilson, Political Organizations (New York: Basic Books, 1973)。
〔27〕参见注释17。
〔28〕George W.Ball and Douglas B.Ball, The Passionate Attachment: America's Involvement with Israel, 1947 to the Present (New York: Norton, 1992);Mitchell G.Bard, The Water's Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on U.S.Middle East Policy (New York: Transaction Books, 1991);Paul Findley, They Dare to Speak Out: People and Institutions Confront Israel's Lobby (Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill, 1985); J.J.Goldberg, Jewish Power:Inside the American Jewish Establishment (New York: Perseus Books, 1996);Anatol Lieven, America Right or Wrong: An Anatomy of American Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), chap.6; Michael Lind, “The Israel Lobby,” Prospect73(April 2002); Massing, “Storm over the Israel Lobby”;Michael Massing, “The Israel Lobby,” Nation, June 10, 2002; Michael Massing, “Deal Breakers,” American Prospect, March 11, 2002; Edward Tivnan,The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon& Schuster, 1987),以及James Petras, The Power of Israel in the United States(Atlanta, GA: Clarity Press, 2006)。虽然我们并不同意这些作品中的每个主张,但是每部作品中都包含了有关美以关系的有益信息。
〔29〕Steven L.Spiegel, The Other Arab-Israeli Conflict: Making America's Middle East Policy from Truman to Reagan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1985),以及Warren Bass, Support Any Friend: Kennedy's Middle East and the Making of the U.S.-Israeli Alliance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003)。其他有益的作品包括Abraham Ben-Zvi, The United States and Israel: Limits of the Special Relationship (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993); Abraham Ben-Zvi, Decade of Transition: Eisenhower, Kennedy and the Origins of the American-Israeli Relationship (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998);Peter L.Hahn, Caught in the Middle East: U.S.Policy Toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1945—1961(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004);William B.Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-IsraeliConflict Since 1967, 3rd ed.(Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press,2004); David Schoenbaum, The United States and the State of Israel (New York:Oxford University Press, 1993),以及Peter Grose, Israel in the Mind of America (New York: Knopf, 1983)。
〔30〕相关的作品有Shlomo Ben-Ami, Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli-Arab Tragedy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Simha Flapan,The Birth of Israel: Myths and Realities (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987);Baruch Kimmerling, Politicide: Ariel Sharon's War Against the Palestinians(London: Verso, 2003); Benny Morris, Righteous Victims: A History of the ZionistArab Conflict, 1881—1999(New York: Knopf, 1999); Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (Oxford, England: Oneworld Publications, 2006);Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate,trans.Haim Watzman(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000); Tom Segev, 1967:Israel, the War, and the Year That Transformed the Middle East, trans.Jessica Cohen(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007); Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall:Israel and the Arab World (New York: Norton, 2000),以及Zeev Sternhell, The Founding Myths of Israel: Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State, trans.David Maisel(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998)。
〔31〕参见Nur Masalha, Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of“Transfer” in Zionist Political Thought, 1882—1948(Washington, DC:Institute for Palestine Studies, 1992); Eugene L.Rogan and Avi Shlaim, eds.,The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Norman G.Finkelstein, Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict (London: Verso, 2001),以及Rashid Khalidi, The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006)。