结论

结论

最终,在这些替代性的解释中,没有一种能够充分解释第二次黎巴嫩战争期间的美国政策。人们也找不出引人注目的战略或道德理论来解释这一点,即在全世界其他地方都在对以色列的行为进行严厉批评的时候,为什么美国却向以色列提供无条件的支持。事实上,在冲突期间保持美国坚定地支持以色列方面,以色列游说集团扮演了关键的角色,尽管这使它蒙受了战略成本和令人怀疑的道德立场的代价。

黎巴嫩战争对黎巴嫩人民来说是个灾难,对美国和以色列来说也是一个大挫折。以色列游说集团通过阻碍布什政府进行独立的判断和在战前及战争期间施加影响力,能使以色列作出适得其反的反应。在这个例子中,就像在许多其他的例子中一样,以色列游说集团的影响力对美国和以色列的利益都是有害的。

如果以色列游说集团不支持不同的方法,或者说如果以色列游说集团的影响力不受到削弱,那么美国在该地区的政策将依然难以实现,并伤害到相关的各方。在最后一章中,我们对什么应该是美国的政策进行了辨析,而且我们讨论了如何可能缓解或修正以色列游说集团的负面影响。

〔1〕人权观察估计,1125位黎巴嫩人在战争中被杀,其中300人至350人是战斗人员。2007年5月24日和30日本书两位作者与人权观察的私人通信。被杀死的人当中1/3为儿童的数据来自Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Deliberate Destruction or‘Collateral Damage’? Israeli Attacks on Civilian Infrastructure,” Report MDE 18/007/2006, August 23, 2006。关于对基础设施造成的损害,参见同上; Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Out of All Proportion—Civilians Bear the Brunt of the War,” Report MDE 02/033/2006, November 21, 2006,以及“Middle East Crisis: Facts and Figures,” BBC News (online), August 31, 2006。

〔2〕关于威诺格拉德委员会的授权,参见Ha'aretzStaff, “The Main Findings of the Winograd Partial Report on the Second Lebanon War,” Ha'aretz , May 1,2007。

〔3〕雪杉革命(Cedar Revolution),指2005年2月14日开始,由于拉菲克·哈里里被刺杀而导致的黎巴嫩大规模群众运动。通过这次运动,叙利亚被迫从黎巴嫩撤出了所有14000人的部队,结束了1975以来对黎巴嫩长达30年的军事占领。这场运动因黎巴嫩国旗上的主要标志是雪杉而得名。——译者注。

〔4〕引自Matthew Kalman, “Israel Set War Plan More than a Year Ago:Strategy Was Put in Motion as Hezbollah Began Increasing Its Military Strength,”San Francisco Chronicle (online), July 21, 2006。也可参见战争刚开始之后马丁·弗莱彻在蒂姆·拉塞特的与新闻界会面(Meet the Press)节目上的评论,“Transcript for July 16,” MSNBC.com , July 16, 2006; Bernard Gwertzman,“Steinberg: Israel Hoping Attacks on Hezbollah Serve as a Warning to Iran,”2006年8月1日对拉尔德·M.斯坦伯格的采访,外交关系委员会; Yagil Levy, “A Voluntary ‘Putsch,’” Ha'aretz , July 24, 2006; Andrea Mitchell,“U.S.Stands Alone in Defending Israel,” MSNBC.com , July 13, 2006; Robert Novak, “No Political Upside in Criticizing Israel,” Chicago Sun-Times ,August 7, 2006,以及Tanya Reinhart, “Israel's ‘New Middle East,’”CounterPunch.org , July 27, 2006。

〔5〕Seymour M.Hersh, “Watching Lebanon,” New Yorker , August 21, 2006.类似地,马修·卡尔曼(Matthew Kalman)写道:“在自以色列结束对南黎巴嫩军事占领以来的几年中,由于黎巴嫩真主党在该地区建立军事存在,因此以色列留心地观察着。当黎巴嫩真主党民兵在上星期绑架两名以色列士兵的时候,以色列军队几乎准备好了立即作出反应。” Kalman, “Israel Set War Plan.”

〔6〕参见“Main Findings of the Winograd Partial Report”。奥尔默特对维诺格拉德委员会证词的报道参见Aluf Benn, “PM Says Decided on Response to Abductions Months Before War,” Ha'aretz , March 8, 2007。也可参见Aluf Benn, “Report:Interim Findings of War Won't Deal with Personal Failures,” Ha'aretz , March 8,2007; Josef Federman, “Reports: Israel Ready Before Lebanon War,”Washington Post , March 9, 2007; Amos Harel, Nir Hasson, Mazal Mualem, and Aluf Benn, “Officers Slam PM for Planning War but Not Preparing IDF,”Ha'aretz , March 9, 2007,以及 Nir Hasson, “Senior IDF Officer to Haaretz:PM Did Not Order Us to Prepare for War,” Ha'aretz , March 12, 2007。

〔7〕Hersh, “Watching Lebanon”; Kalman, “Israel Set War Plan.” Also see“Israel: Did Blair Know All Along?” Daily Mail (online), August 14, 2006.

〔8〕Hersh, “Watching Lebanon.”

〔9〕美国新世纪计划于2001年9月20日向布什总统发出了一封由许多著名的新保守派签署的公开信,这封公开信说:“任何打击恐怖主义的战争必须针对真主党。”公开信发表在2001年10月1日的《旗帜周刊》上。

〔10〕Helene Cooper, “Rice's Hurdles on Middle East Begin at Home,” New York Times , August 10, 2006.也可参见Sidney Blumenthal, “The Neocons' Next War,” Salon.com , August 3, 2006; Hersh, “Watching Lebanon”; and Shmuel Rosner and Aluf Benn, “How to Win Friends and Influence Governments,”Ha'aretz , July 28, 2006。

〔11〕Marc Perelman, “Cheney Taps Syria Hawk as Adviser on Mideast,”Forward , October 31, 2003.也可参见Jim Lobe, “New Cheney Adviser Sets Syria in His Sights,” Inter Press Service, October 20, 2003。约翰·汉纳是黎巴嫩冲突之前和冲突期间切尼办公室中另一位重要的新保守派。Robert Dreyfuss, “Vice Squad,”American Prospect , May 2006,以及Janine Zacharia, “Bush Appoints Mideast Advisers,” Jerusalem Post , February 7, 2001。

〔12〕“A Clean Break: A New Strategy for Securing the Realm”是为耶路撒冷的高级战略与政治研究所而准备的,并于1996年6月发表。报告副本可登录该研究所的网站www.iasps.org/strat1.htm。

〔13〕Adam Shatz, “In Search of Hezbollah,” New York Review of Books ,April 29, 2004.也可参见 Mark Hosenball and Michael Isikoff, “Secret Proposals,” Newsweek , August 9, 2004。

〔14〕这是《经济学家》用来描述黎巴嫩战争期间美国对以色列支持的话。参见“To Israel with Love,” Economist , August 5, 2006。

〔15〕以色列大使丹·吉勒曼在战争之前发表讲话,他在纽约对国际圣约信徒会的一次会议说:“今天,秘密不再了。我们实际上不只是5名(以色列联合国使团的)外交官。我们至少有6名外交官,其中包括约翰·博尔顿。”引自Irwin Arieff, “Israel's UN Ambassador Slams Qatar, Praises Bolton,” Reuters, May 22, 2006。关于博尔顿的行动,参见Associated Press, “Bolton: US Wanted Hizbullah Eliminated,”Jerusalem Post , March 22, 2007; “Bolton Admits Lebanon Truce Block,” BBC News (online), March 22, 2007; Robin Wright, “Strikes Are Called Part of Broad Strategy,” Washington Post , July 16, 2006,以及“U.S.Vetoes Criticism of Israel,” New York Times , July 13, 2006。

〔16〕Transcript of “Special Briefing on Travel to the Middle East and Europe,” July 21, 2006,登录www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2006/69331.htm,以及Roula Khalaf, “Rice ‘New Middle East’ Comments Fuel Arab Fury over U.S.Policy,” Financial Times , July 31, 2006。

〔17〕引自Warren Hoge and Steven Erlanger, “U.N.Council Backs Measure to Halt War in Lebanon,” New York Times , August 12, 2006。

〔18〕“Remarks by Ambassador John R.Bolton, U.S.Representative to the United Nations, on the Situation in the Middle East, at the Security Council Stakeout,July 17, 2006,” USUN Press Release #174(06).博尔顿对以色列的坚定捍卫促使美国正统犹太教会众联合会(Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America)打破其“不介入人事任命”的传统,从而要求参议院让博尔顿成为常任联合国大使。Rosner and Benn, “How to Win Friends.”

〔19〕Blumenthal, “Neocons' Next War”; David S.Cloud and Helene Cooper,“U.S.Speeds Up Bomb Delivery for the Israelis,” New York Times , July 22,2006.

〔20〕John Diamond, “Officials: U.S.Blocked Missiles to Hezbollah,” USA Today , August 18, 2006.

〔21〕引自Sheryl Gay Stolberg, “Bush's Embrace of Israel Shows Gap with Father,” New York Times , August 2, 2006。

〔22〕引自David J.Silverman, “Politicking over Israel: Jewish State Becomes Fodder in Congressional War,” JTA.org , August 15, 2006。也可参见 Jim VandeHei, “Congress Is Giving Israel Vote of Confidence,” Washington Post ,July 19, 2006。

〔23〕引自Silverman, “Politicking over Israel”。在支持以色列战争中的行动的一次集会上,《纽约时报》报道说:“狂热度是如此之高,以至于对以色列行动进行捍卫的布什总统得到了一长排的政治家的赞誉,他们几乎百分之百是民主党人。”Clyde Haberman,“At Israel Rally, a Word Fails,” New York Times , July 18, 2006.

〔24〕James D.Besser, “Scoring Points with the Israel Issue,” Jewish Week ,July 28, 2006; “To Israel with Love.”

〔25〕Brian Skoloff, “Dean Calls Iraqi PM an ‘Anti-Semite’,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer (online), July 26, 2006.

〔26〕所引用的拉霍尔的话参见Anne Plummer Flaherty, “House Overwhelmingly Backs Israel in Vote,” Guardian , July 20, 2006; 所引用的佐格比的话参见Noam N.Levey, “In Politicians' Pro-Israel Din, Arab Americans Go Unheard,” Los Angeles Times , July 23, 2006。

〔27〕关于克林顿的话,参见Gal Beckerman, “New York Jews Rally in Support of Israel,” Jerusalem Post , July 18, 2006;关于麦凯恩的话,参见Christopher Grimes, “European Criticism of Israel ‘Amazes’ Senator,” Financial Times ,July 18, 2006;关于拜登和金里奇的话,参见他们在蒂姆·拉塞特的与新闻界会面节目上的评论,2006年7月16日。也可参见Michael Abramowitz, “Conservative Anger Grows over Bush's Foreign Policy,” Washington Post , July 19, 2006。

〔28〕Novak, “No Political Upside.”

〔29〕“Editorials Continue to Back Wide Air War Against Lebanon,” Editor &Publisher , July 20, 2006.也可参见 Greg Mitchell, “Few Editorials Find Fault with the Bombing of Beirut,” Editor & Publisher , July 18, 2006。这种普遍模式的一个重要例外是Nicholas D.Kristof, “In Lebanon, Echoes of Iraq?” New York Times , July 25, 2006。

〔30〕引自Marvin Kalb and Carol Saivetz, “The Israeli-Hezbollah War of 2006:The Media as a Weapon in Asymmetrical Conflict,” Faculty Research Working Paper RWP07-012, John F.Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, February 2007, p.15。从亲以色列的观点写成的卡尔布和萨伊维茨研究报告(Kalb and Saivetz study)认为,由于以色列是一个“开放性社会”,而黎巴嫩真主党则是一个“封闭性社会”,因此以色列受到媒体的不公正对待。由于该研究报告集中关注对冲突的新闻报道,基本上忽视了社论和评论,因此它能够说,相对于黎巴嫩真主党,以色列总是被描述得更加负面。由于以色列是一个相对开放性的社会,因而它在媒体上处于劣势这种说法是不能令人信服的,因为新闻记者能够清楚看到以色列和黎巴嫩正在发生的事情。

〔31〕被杀平民的数量基于以上注释1中人权观察所描述的数字。损坏或被摧毁的建筑物数字来自“Middle East Crisis: Facts and Figures”。

〔32〕Andrew Gumbel, “America's One-Eyed View of War: Stars, Stripes, and the Star of David,” Independent , August 15, 2006.也可参见“Is America Watching a Different War? American, Lebanese and Israeli Panel on How the US Media Is Covering the Invasion of Lebanon,” Democracy Now.org , August 3,2006。

〔33〕“Main Findings of the Winograd Partial Report.” 报告还说,“实现具有重大政治—国际分量的军事利益的能力是有限的”,而且“部分已被宣告的一些战争目标是……通过授权的军事行动模式实现不了的”。

〔34〕引自Larry Cohler-Esses, “Israel Seeks to Redefine Victory,” Jewish Week , August 4, 2006。也可参见Jack Khoury, “Top IDF Officer: We Knew War Would Not Get Our Soldiers Back,” Ha'aretz , April 26, 2007,以及 Ori Nir,“Israel Seeks to Eliminate Iran's Hezbollah Option,” Forward , July 14, 2006。

〔35〕引自Wright, “Strikes Are Called”。

〔36〕Benjamin Netanyahu, “No Ceasefire in the War on Terror,” Wall Street Journal , July 22, 2006.

〔37〕一名以色列高级指挥官告诉《纽约时报》说:“在考虑任何地面部队之前,军队计划了15天的空战……我们不希望进行任何的地面攻击,并且认为我们可以在没有进行主要地面攻击的情况下创造停火条件。”引自Steven Erlanger, “Israeli Officer Says Army Aims to Kill Nasrallah,” New York Times , August 20, 2006。

〔38〕本段落中所引用的奥尔默特的两段话均来自“PM Olmert: Lebanon Is Responsible and Will Bear the Consequences,”以色列外交部2006年7月12日的记者招待会副本。

〔39〕这一基本战略在以色列的军事政策中具有悠久的传统。例如,20世纪50年代,以色列对约旦武装部队和警察部队的报复行为,部分地是为了说服约旦政府严厉打击跨境袭击以色列的巴勒斯坦团体。参见Jonathan Shimshoni, Israel and Conventional DeterrenceBorder Warfare from 1953 to 1970(Ithaca: Cornell University Press,1988), chap.2.

〔40〕Noam Ophir, “Look Not to the Skies: The IAF vs.Surface-to-Surface Rocket Launchers,” Strategic Assessment (Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies,Tel Aviv University) 9, no.3(November 2006).

〔41〕Uzi Rubin, “Hezbollah's Rocket Campaign Against Northern Israel: A Preliminary Report,” Jerusalem Issue Brief(Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs)6, no.10(August 31, 2006).

〔42〕Jonathan Finer and Edward Cody, “No Cease-Fire Soon, Israeli Leader Says,” Washington Post , August 1, 2006; Yochi J.Dreazen and Marc Champion,“U.S., Israel Start to Diverge as Casualties Mount,” Wall Street Journal ,August 1, 2006.

〔43〕Amos Harel, “Analysis: Hezbollah Is Still Showing No Signs of Breaking,” Ha'aretz , July 20, 2006; John Kifner, “Israel Is Powerful,Yes.But Not So Invincible,” New York Times , July 30, 2006; Ze'ev Schiff,“A Strategic Mistake,” Ha'aretz , July 20, 2006; Ari Shavit, “An Aerial War,” Ha'aretz , July 20, 2006; “What About the Missiles?”Ha'aretzeditorial, August 3, 2006,以及Martin Van Creveld, “In This War,Too, Victory Is Unlikely,” International Herald Tribune , August 2, 2006。

〔44〕John Kifner and Greg Myre, “After U.N.Accord, Israel Expands Push in Lebanon,” New York Times , August 13, 2006.

〔45〕对这一主题进行开创性工作的是Robert A.Pape, Bombing to WinAir Power and Coercion in War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996)。也可参见John J.Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: Norton, 2001),pp.85—110。

〔46〕Amnesty International, “Unlawful Killings During Operation ‘Grapes of Wrath,’” July 1996; Warren Christopher, “A Time to Act,” Washington Post ,July 28, 2006; Human Rights Watch, “Operation Grapes of Wrath: The Civilian Victims,” September 1997; Ze'ev Schiff, “Strategic Mistake”,以及 Avi Shlaim, “Israel's Error, Then and Now,” International Herald Tribune ,August 4, 2006。

〔47〕Beirut Center for Research and Information, “Poll Finds Support for Hezbollah's Retaliation: Opinions Diverge on Sectarian Lines—But Not Completely,” July 29, 2006; Dahr Jamail, “Hezbollah Rides a New Popularity,” Antiwar.com , August 8, 2006; Nadim Ladki, “US Policy Alienates All the Lebanese,” Gulf Times (online), August 1, 2006; Neil MacFarquhar, “Tide of Arab Opinion Turns to Support for Hezbollah,” New York Times , July 28, 2006,以及Shibley Telhami, “Hezbollah's Popularity Exposes al-Qaeda's Failure to Win the Hearts,” San Jose Mercury News (online), July 30, 2006。

〔48〕Cohler-Esses, “Israel Seeks to Redefine Victory”; Steve Erlanger,“Israel Seeks Hint of Victory,” New York Times , August 13, 2006; Anshel Pfeffer, “Analysis: The IDF's New Definition of Victory,” Jerusalem Post ,July 26, 2006,以及Zeev Sternhell, “The Most Unsuccessful War,” Ha'aretz ,August 2, 2006。

〔49〕Charles Krauthammer, “Israel's Lost Moment,” Washington Post ,August 4, 2006; Ori Nir, “Conservatives Slam Israeli War Strategy,”Forward , August 11, 2006.也可参见Bret Stephens, “Israel Is Losing This War,” Wall Street Journal , August 1, 2006,以及“Olmert and Bush,” Wall Street Journal editorial, August 1, 2006。以色列国防军在黎巴嫩的表现,在此期间——即从这些文章的写作时间到8月14日战争结束期间——并未得到改善。

〔50〕关于以色列赢得这场战争,或至少没有输掉这场战争的观点,参见Nahum Barnea,“Think Again: Israel vs.Hezbollah,” Foreign Policy 157(November—December 2006); Cameron S.Brown, “Iran's Investment Just Went Down the Tubes,”Ha'aretz , September 10, 2006; Shai Feldman, “The Hezbollah-Israel War: A Preliminary Assessment,” Middle East Brief no.10(Crown Center for Middle East Studies, Brandeis University, September 2006); Michael A.Fletcher,“Hezbollah the Loser in Battle, Bush Says,” Washington Post , August 15,2006; Efraim Halevy, “Blind Date,” New Republic , August 14 & 21, 2006;Shmuel Rosner, “U.S.Diplomats Begin Viewing Lebanon War as Success,”Ha'aretz , September 15, 2006,以及Asher Susser, “Lebanon: A Reassessment,”Jerusalem Post , September 13, 2006。以色列和以色列游说集团急需把这场战争说成以色列的胜利,即使只是勉强说说,这样美国人就会继续把以色列看作一个可靠的盟友。利昂·哈达尔(Leon Hadar)在下面的文章中对此进行了佐证:“Neocons amid Lebanon's Rubble: A Challenge to Krauthammer's Israel-as-Strategic-Asset Argument,”National Interest (online), September 14, 2006。在这一点上,值得注意的是,在8月4日看到以色列正在输掉战争(Israel's Lost Moment)的查尔斯·克劳萨默,在9月1日所写的一篇专栏文章(Hezbollah's “Victory,” Washington Post)中却宣称:“虽然黎巴嫩真主党可能已经赢得了宣传战,但是却输掉了地面战。它输得很惨。”然而,大多数以色列军官的看法却与此相反。参见Amos Harel, “Chief Education Officer: We Lost Lebanon War,” Ha'aretz , September 22, 2006,以及Hanan Greenberg,“Officers Slam IDF War Conference,” Ynetnews.com , January 2, 2007。《纽约时报》也报道说,就在战争结束之前,以色列《国土报》进行的民意调查显示,只有20%的以色列人认为以色列正在赢得战争,30%的人认为以色列正在输掉战争,43%的人认为没有一方正在赢得战争。参见Hoge and Erlanger, “U.N.Council Backs Measure”。大多数以色列人在战争结束后赞同这项评估,就像2007年初进行的一项民意调查所发现的那样,51%的回应者认为双方都没有赢得战争,26%的回应者说黎巴嫩真主党赢得了战争,23%的回应者说以色列赢得了战争。Ben Meir and Shaked, “The People Speak,” p.9, pp.20—21.进而言之,就在战争结束之后的一项民意调查发现,63%的回应者认为奥尔默特总理应该辞职,74%的回应者认为国防部长阿米尔·佩雷兹应该辞职;而54%的回应者认为以色列国防军参谋长丹·哈鲁茨将军应该辞职。“Poll: Majority Wants Olmert Out,” Ynetnews.com ,August 25, 2006.

〔51〕关于认为黎巴嫩真主党是这场冲突最后赢家的精彩评估,参见《亚洲时报在线》(Asia Times Online)的三期连载系列文章Alastair Crooke and Mark Perry:“Winning the Intelligence War,” October 12, 2006; “Winning the Ground War,”October 13, 2006;以及“The Political War,” October 14, 2006。也可参见Anthony H.Cordesman, “Preliminary ‘Lessons’ of the Israeli-Hezbollah War,”Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, DC, August 17,2006; Ron Tira, “Breaking the Amoeba's Bones,” Strategic Assessment (Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University) 9, no.3(November 2006),以及 Amir Kulick, “Hizbollah vs.the IDF: The Operational Dimension,” in Ibid。

〔52〕“Main Findings of the Winograd Partial Report.”也可参见 Gregory Levey,“Israel's Surge of Despair,” Salon.com , February 15, 2007。

〔53〕“Hizbullah Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah Calls upon Arab Leaders to Promote Cease-Fire in Meetings with the Americans,” Middle East Media Research Institute, TV Monitor Project, Clip no.1219, August 3, 2006,登录www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1219 on May 17, 2007。

〔54〕参见Information International Poll, August 22—27, 2006, in Gary C.Gambill, ed.,“Lebanese Public Opinion,” Mideast Monitor1, no.3(September—October 2006)。

〔55〕“Poll: 64% of Lebanese Say Opinion of U.S.Worsened After War,”Ha'aretz , November 14, 2006.也可参见 Jim Lobe, “Backing for Israel Stymies Larger U.S.Aims in the Region,” Antiwar.com , July 22, 2006; Jim Lobe,“Losing Arab Allies' Hearts and Minds,” Inter Press Service, December 14,2006; Shmuel Rosner, “They Know You Know They're Winning,” Slate.com ,December 4, 2006,以及Shibley Telhami, “Annual Arab Public Opinion Survey”(with Zogby International), 结果来自2006年11月11日至16日的黎巴嫩民意调查。

〔56〕Zogby International, “Five Nation Survey of the Middle East,” 2006年12月为阿拉伯美国研究所进行的民意调查。也可参见Zogby International, “AAI Poll: Continuing Conflict in Iraq and Palestine Deepens U.S.-Arab Rift with Growing Costs to Both Sides,” December 14, 2006。

〔57〕Thanassis Cambanis, “Travel Industry Suffers Another Blow in Lebanon,”Boston Globe , September 4, 2006.

〔58〕Information International Poll, August 22—27, 2006; Telhami,“Annual Arab Public Opinion Survey.” 同样值得注意的是,大多数黎巴嫩人并不埋怨真主党挑起了战争,就像一项民意调查所发现的那样,84%的回应者“同意以黎战争是以色列和美国企图强加一种中东秩序的结果”。参见Center for Strategic Studies poll published in Gambill, “Lebanese Public Opinion”。

〔59〕“Another Killing in Lebanon,” New York Timeseditorial, November 23,2006; “Beirut Rally Attracts Huge Crowd,” BBC News (online), December 10,2006; Akiva Eldar, “Israel Fears Siniora Government May Fall,” Ha'aretz ,December 3, 2006; “Fleeting Gains from Lebanon War?” Jewish Week , December 8, 2006; Michael Slackman, “Anti-Syrian Minister Is Assassinated in Lebanon,”New York Times , November 21, 2006; “Lebanon on the Brink,” Chicago Tribuneeditorial, November 23, 2006; Tim McGirk, “Losing Lebanon,” Time ,December 3, 2006; Jim Quilty, “Winter of Lebanon's Discontent,” Middle East Report Online , January 26, 2007,以及Anthony Shadid, “As Crises Build,Lebanese Fearful of a Failed State,” Washington Post , June 5, 2007。

〔60〕Michael Slackman, “Iran's Strong Ties with Syria Complicate U.S.Overtures,” New York Times , December 28, 2006.

〔61〕Rafael D.Frankel, “Israel Troubled That War in Lebanon Drove Its Enemies Closer,” Christian Science Monitor , September 22, 2006.

〔62〕Blumenthal, “Neocons' Next War”; Max Boot, “Israel Should Hit Syria First,” Los Angeles Times , August 23, 2006; Daniel J.Goldhagen,“Israel's Way Out,” Los Angeles Times ,August 8, 2006; William Kristol,“It's Our War,” Weekly Standard , July 24, 2006; Michael Ledeen, “The Thirties All Over Again?” National Review Online , July 31, 2006; Ori Nir,“U.S.Ripped for Inaction on Israeli, Syrian Front,” Forward , August 4,2006; Michael B.Oren, “Necessary Steps for Israel,” Washington Post , July 14, 2006; Michael B.Oren, “Why Israel Should Bomb Syria: Attack Add,” New Republic Online , July 17, 2006; Tom Regan, “US Neocons Hoped Israel Would Attack Syria,” Christian Science Monitor , August 9, 2006,以及George F.Will,“Transformation's Toll,” Washington Post , July 18, 2006。

〔63〕Yitzhak Benhorin, “Neocons: We Expected Israel to Attack Syria,”Ynetnews.com , December 16, 2006.也可参见Jim Lobe, “Neo-Cons Wanted Israel to Attack Syria,” Inter Press Service, December 18, 2006。

〔64〕Robin Hughes, “Iran Replenishes Hizbullah's Arms Inventory,” Jane's Defence Weekly , January 3, 2007; Yaakov Katz, “Syria Resupplying Hizbullah with Long-Range Missiles,” Jerusalem Post , December 4, 2006; David R.Sands,“Iran, Syria Rebuild Hezbollah,” Washington Times , October 25, 2006;Elaine Shannon and Tim McGirk, “Iran and Syria Helping Hizballah Rearm,”Time , November 24, 2006,以及Ronny Sofer, “Ashkenazi: Hizbullah Trying to Move South of Litani,” Ynetnews.com , April 29, 2007。

〔65〕Damien Cave, “Protestors in Baghdad Denounce U.S.and Israel,” New York Times , August 4, 2006; Andy Mosher, “In Baghdad, Shiites Rally for Hezbollah,” Washington Post , August 5, 2006,以及“Tens of Thousands Rally in Baghdad to Show Support for Hezbollah,” USA Today , August 4, 2006。

〔66〕Michael R.Gordon and Dexter Filkins, “Hezbollah Said to Help Shiite Army in Iraq,” New York Times , November 28, 2006.

〔67〕MacFarquhar, “Tide of Arab Opinion.” 也可参见Scott MacLeod,“Egypt's Mubarak: ‘No Light at the End of the Tunnel,’” Time , July 27,2006; “Saudi Arabia Harshly Criticizes Hezbollah for Escalating Mideast Crisis,” Associated Press, July 14, 2006,以及Andy Mosher, “From Arab Leaders, Sympathy for Civilians but Not Hezbollah,” Washington Post , July 18,2006。

〔68〕Philip Gordon and Jeremy Shapiro, “US Has Emerged as a Loser in the Middle East,” Financial Times , August 20, 2006; Richard Holbrooke, “The Guns of August,” Washington Post , August 10, 2006; Howard LaFranchi, “Why Europe, US Differ on Mideast,” Christian Science Monitor , August 4, 2006;Neil MacFarquhar, “Anti-U.S.Feeling Leaves Arab Reformers Isolated,” New York Times , August 9, 2006; Tyler Marshall, “On Cease-Fire, U.S.Diplomacy Again Takes a Go-It-Alone Path,” Los Angeles Times , August 1, 2006; Tyler Marshall and Alissa J.Rubin, “U.S.Clout a Missing Ingredient in Mideast,” Los Angeles Times , August 8, 2006; Mark Perry and Alastair Crooke, “The Loser in Lebanon: The Atlantic Alliance,” Asia Times Online , August 8, 2006;“The US and Israel Stand Alone,” 《明镜周刊在线》(Spiegel Online)2006年8月15日对吉米·卡特的采访,以及Robin Wright and Colum Lynch, “US at Odds with Allies on Mideast Conflict,” Washington Post , July 20, 2006。

〔69〕Peter Kiernan, “Middle East Opinion: Iran Fears Aren't Hitting the Arab Street,” WorldPoliticsWatch.com , March 1, 2007.也可参见 Jim Lobe,“Arabs Less Worried About Iran,” Inter Press Service, February 8, 2007。

〔70〕引自Stolberg, “Bush's Embrace”。也可参见John B.Judis, “Bush's Failed Israel Strategy: Apocalypse Now,” New Republic Online , August 2,2006。

〔71〕引自Nir, “Conservatives Slam Israeli War Strategy”。也可参见Eliot Cohen, “Nasrallah's War: Observations upon Returning from Israel,” Berlin Journal 13(Fall 2006): 23—25。

〔72〕在黎巴嫩真主党最初的袭击中,有3名以色列国防军士兵死亡;而在以色列国防军最初试图营救被俘人员时又有5人死亡。Helena Cobban, “The 33-Day War,” Boston Review , November/December 2006; Amos Harel, “Hezbollah Kills 8 Soldiers,Kidnaps Two in Offensive on Northern Border,” Ha'aretz , July 13, 2006;“Hezbollah Warns Israel over Raids,” BBC News (online), July 12, 2006;Greg Myre and Steven Erlanger, “Clashes Spread to Lebanon as Hezbollah Raids Israel,” New York Times , July 13, 2006,以及Anthony Shadid and Scott Wilson,“Hezbollah Raid Opens 2nd Front for Israel,” Washington Post , July 13, 2006。(https://www.daowen.com)

〔73〕引自Shadid and Wilson, “Hezbollah Raid”。纳斯鲁拉在战后再次清楚地表明,他没有兴趣同以色列打仗,因为他说如果知道袭击将导致战争的话,他就不会下令进行袭击。Zvi Bar'el, “Analysis: Nasrallah Is Still in Charge,” Ha'aretz ,August 28, 2006,以及Rory McCarthy, “Hizbullah Leader: We Regret the Two Kidnappings That Led to War with Israel,” Guardian , August 28, 2006。

〔74〕Shlomo Brom, “The Confrontation with Hezbollah,” Tel-Aviv Note no.177, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, July 13, 2006; Margot Dudkevitch,“UN-Brokered Cease-Fire Holds after Hizbullah Shells Mount Dov,” Jerusalem Post , February 3, 2006; “Israeli Army Targets Hezbollah,” Los Angeles Times , February 4, 2006; Herb Keinon, “Security Council Condemns Hizbullah,” Jerusalem Post , November 24, 2005; Greg Myre, “Israel Strikes Northern Gaza and Lebanon with Planes,” New York Times , December 28, 2005;Anders Strindberg, “Hizbullah's Attacks Stem from Israeli Incursions into Lebanon,” Christian Science Monitor , August 1, 2006; Scott Wilson,“Hezbollah Shelling Kills 1; Ends Calm on Israeli Border,” Washington Post ,June 30, 2005; Scott Wilson, “Hezbollah, Israeli Forces Clash on Lebanese Border,” Washington Post , November 22, 2005,以及Scott Wilson, “Violence Flares Across Israel-Lebanon Border,” Washington Post , May 29, 2006。

〔75〕Margot Dudkevitch, “Nasrallah Vows More Kidnapping Attempts,”Jerusalem Post , November 27, 2005.

〔76〕“Day-by-Day: Lebanon Crisis—Week One,” BBC News (online), July 19, 2006.

〔77〕引自Chris McGreal, “Capture of Soldiers Was ‘Act of War’ Says Israel,” Guardian , July 13, 2006。就在战争结束之前,前总理埃胡德·巴拉克告诉美国有线新闻广播网说:“在接下来的12至13个小时里,是我们尽一切可能摧毁尽可能多的基础设施的时候了,然后我们再看看接下来干什么。”引自Cobban, “The 33-Day War”。

〔78〕引自Hassan M.Fattah and Steven Erlanger, “Israel Blockades Lebanon;Wide Strikes by Hezbollah,” New York Times , July 14, 2006。

〔79〕Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Deliberate Destruction.”

〔80〕William M.Arkin, “Israel's Failed Strategy of Spite,” August 15,2006,登录http://blog.wash ingtonpost.com/earlywarning/2006/08/did_israel_win.html。

〔81〕David S.Cloud, “Inquiry Opened into Israeli Use of U.S.Bombs,” New York Times ,August 25, 2006; Richard Moyes and Thomas Nash, Cluster Munitions in Lebanon (London: Landmine Action, November 2005), pp.7—12.

〔82〕Richard Ben Cramer, “Israel Criticized for Use of Indiscriminate Bombs,” Washington Post , June 30, 1982; Kevin Danaher, “Israel's Use of Cluster Bombs in Lebanon,” Journal of Palestine Studies 11—12, nos.4, 1(Summer—Autumn 1982); Judith Miller, “U.S.Bars Cluster Shells for Israel Indefinitely,” New York Times , July 28, 1982,以及 “U.S.Removes Ban on Bombs to Israel,” Washington Post , December 7, 1988。

〔83〕Cloud, “Inquiry Opened into Israeli Use of U.S.Bombs”; Human Rights Watch, “Israeli Cluster Munitions Hit Civilians in Lebanon,” 2006年7月24日的新闻稿; Greg Myre, “Israel Orders Investigation of Bomb Use in Lebanon,”New York Times , November 21, 2006; Meron Rappaport, “IDF Commander: We Fired More Than a Million Cluster Bombs in Lebanon,” Ha'aretz , September 12,2006; “Shooting Without a Target,” Ha'aretzeditorial, September 14, 2006,以及Michael Slackman, “Israeli Bomblets Plague Lebanon,” New York Times ,October 6, 2006。

〔84〕引自Meron Rappaport, “What Lies Beneath,” Ha'aretz , September 8,2006。

〔85〕引自“U.N.Official Denounces Israel Cluster Bomb Use,” MSNBC.com ,August 30, 2006。

〔86〕引自Rappaport, “IDF Commander”。

〔87〕“U.N.Official Denounces Israel Cluster Bomb Use.”

〔88〕Associated Press, “UN Envoy: Israel Broke Int'l Law in War,”Jerusalem Post , April 13, 2007.也可参见 Thomas Nash, Foreseeable HarmThe Use and Impact of Cluster Munitions in Lebanon2006(London: Landmine Action,October 2006)。

〔89〕有关这一主题的主要作品是Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust WarsA Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations , 4th ed.(New York: Basic Books,2006)。

〔90〕Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Out of All Proportion,”pp.26, 28, 45.

〔91〕Human Rights Watch, “Fatal Strikes: Israel's Indiscriminate Attacks Against Civilians in Lebanon,” hrw.org, vol.18, no.3(August 2006): 3.

〔92〕Ibid.也可参见Peter Bouckaert, “For Israel, Innocent Civilians Are Fair Game,” International Herald Tribune , August 3, 2006; Peter Bouckaert,“White Flags, Not a Legitimate Target,” Guardian , July 31, 2006,以及Kenneth Roth, “Fog of War Is No Cover for Causing Civilian Deaths,” Forward ,August 4, 2006。

〔93〕所引用的拉蒙的话来自Mark Levine, “Qana Rules,” CommonDreams.org ,July 31, 2006,以及 Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Out of All Proportion,” p.21。也可参见 Gideon Levy, “Days of Darkness,” Ha'aretz ,July 30, 2006。

〔94〕Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Out of All Proportion,”pp.21—22, 28—30.

〔95〕Ibid., p.64.

〔96〕Human Rights Watch, “Fatal Strikes,” p.5.

〔97〕引自Shimon Golding, “New Yorkers Rally for Israel,” Jewish Press(online), July 19, 2006.

〔98〕Steven Erlanger, “With Israeli Use of Force, Debate over Proportion,”New York Times , July 19, 2006; Lt.Col.Reuven Erlich, “Hezbollah's Use of Lebanese Civilians as Human Shields,” Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center, Center for Special Studies, Israel, November 2006.该项研究得到以色列国防军和以色列外交部的支持。关于简要的批评,参见Kenneth Roth, “Violation of Rules of War in Israel's Lebanon Attacks,”给编辑的信, Wall Street Journal ,December 19, 2006。

〔99〕Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Out of All Proportion,”pp.63—64.

〔100〕Mitch Prothero, “The Hiding Among Civilians' Myth,” Salon.com ,July 28, 2006.

〔101〕Human Rights Watch, “Fatal Strikes,” p.3.

〔102〕Roth, “Violation of Rules of War.”

〔103〕Sarah Leah Whitson, “Armchair Sleuths,”给编辑的信, Jerusalem Post ,September 7, 2006。

〔104〕Human Rights Watch, “Fatal Strikes,” p.3.也可参见Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Out of All Proportion,” pp.59—64, 该文也得出了相同的结论。

〔105〕《致命打击》(Fatal Strikes)报告(p.3, 5)指出,人权观察组织的研究人员没有发现以色列国防军锁定的24个地区中,任何一个地区周围存在军事活动的证据。不过,在进一步的研究之后,却在其中一个地区证明有军事活动的证据。2007年5月30日人权观察组织给两位作者的私人通信。

〔106〕引自Amnesty International, “Israel/Lebanon: Out of All Proportion,”p.26。

〔107〕Nathan Guttman, “American Jews Mobilize for Israel,” Jerusalem Post , July 16, 2006.也可参见 Jacob Berkman, “Emergency Drive Tops $ 320 Million; Shifts Toward Rebuilding Israel's North,” JTA.org , October 10,2006; Laurie Goodstein, “As Mideast Churns, U.S.Jews and Arabs Alike Swing into Action,” New York Times , July 28, 2006; Avi Krawitz, “Israel Bonds Raises $ 1.2 Billion in 2006,” Jerusalem Post , December 10, 2006; Ori Nir,“Bush Urged to Give Israel More Time for Attacks,” Forward , July 21, 2006,以及Shmuel Rosner, “Despite Criticism, War Raises Genuine Concern for Israel to the Fore,” Ha'aretz , August 20, 2006。

〔108〕Ari Berman, “AIPAC's Hold,” Nation , July 29, 2006; Silverman,“Politicking over Israel.”

〔109〕国会议员克里斯托弗·范霍伦致国务卿康多莉扎·赖斯的信,2006年7月30日,登录www.buzzflash.com/articles/releases/6。

〔110〕施穆尔·罗斯纳在8月9日报道说:“来自马里兰州的民主党国会议员克里斯托弗·范霍伦激怒了一些亲以色列的游说团体,因为他致函美国国务卿康多莉扎·赖斯,敦促她在黎巴嫩‘呼吁立即停火’。最早在今天他将与美国以色列公共事务委员会的代表会面,会面中他将听到这是一个不能接受的举措。”参见“Rosner's Mid-Term Diary: On the Mid-Terms, the Mideast, the Jewish Voters and Israel,” Ha'aretz , August 10,2006。

〔111〕引自Eric Fingerhut, “Van Hollen Issues Clarification; Some Critics Still Question Commitment to Israel,” Washington Jewish Week (online),August 16, 2006。也可参见Eric Fingerhut, “Van Hollen ‘Advice’ Draws Critics,” Washington Jewish Week (online), August 10, 2006,以及Eric Fingerhut, “At Odds,” Washington Jewish Week (online), August 30, 2006。

〔112〕所引用的两段话均来自Fingerhut, “Van Hollen Issues Clarification”。

〔113〕引自Elise Labott, “U.S.Worried Israeli Operations Could Weaken Lebanese Government,” CNN.com , July 14, 2006。也可参见Peter Baker,“U.S.Urges Restraint by Israel,” Washington Post , July 14, 2006; Fattah and Erlanger, “Israel Blockades Lebanon”,以及Wright, “Strikes Are Called Part of Broad Strategy”。

〔114〕即巴勒斯坦过渡政府总理马哈茂德·阿巴斯。——译者注

〔115〕引自“Bush Criticized over Concern for Lebanese Regime,” Forward ,July 14, 2006。

〔116〕“Coverage of War in the Middle East”的副本,根据美国有线新闻广播网的可靠消息来源,2006年8月6日。

〔117〕11世纪至14世纪之间,由英国东部到法国,犹太人被诬告“杀婴魔”,说他们将外族的婴儿杀害后,喝他们的血,并将肉做成犹太人的无酵面球(Matzoh Ball,犹太人逾越节食物),欧洲社会史上称之为“血诬案”(Blood Libel)。——译者注

〔118〕关于唐尼和科奇之间的通信,参见Kathryn J.Lopez, “Ed Koch and Len Downie,” in “The Corner,” National Review Online , August 17, 2006,以及Alex Safian, “Updated: Post's Thomas Ricks Charges Israel Intentionally Leaving Hezbollah Rockets Intact,”登录www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=2&x_outlet=38&x_article=1174。

〔119〕引自Leora Folk, “Washington Post Editor Rebukes His Reporter for Television Comments on Israel,” New York Sun , August 18, 2006。

〔120〕Alan Dershowitz, “What Is ‘Human Rights Watch’ Watching?”Jerusalem Post , August 25, 2006.也可参见Alan Dershowitz, “Amnesty International Redefines ‘War Crimes’,” Jerusalem Post , August 31, 2006。对大赦国际和人权观察组织的攻击在战争的余波中还在继续。参见Gerald Steinberg,“Scrutinize Amnesty International,” New York Sun , May 23, 2007,以及Marc Stern, “The Media Was Misled by Amnesty's Legal Advocacy,” Forward , March 30, 2007。

〔121〕Ken Silverstein, “AIPAC Points to Legion of Doom in Bekaa Valley,”Harper's (online), August 10, 2006; “Israel Taking Significant Steps to Prevent Casualties as Hizballah Hides Behind Civilians,” AIPAC memo, August 1,2006,以及“Israel's Defensive Actions in Lebanon and Gaza,” AIPAC FAQ, July 24, 2006。

〔122〕Gerald M.Steinberg, “Ken Roth's Blood Libel,” Jerusalem Post ,August 27, 2006; “Roth's Supersessionism,” New York Suneditorial, July 31,2006,以及Abraham Foxman, “No Accident,” New York Sun , August 2, 2006。也可参见Avi Bell, “Getting It Straight,” New York Sun , July 25, 2006;Joshua Muravchik, “Human Rights Watch vs.Human Rights,” Weekly Standard,September 11, 2006; Rabbi Aryeh Spero, “Why Liberals Refuse to Admit the Reality of Islamic Fascism,” Human Events (online), August 16, 2006;“Roth's False God,” New York Suneditorial, August 8, 2006,以及 “Sharansky Speaks,” New York Suneditorial, September 12, 2006。

〔123〕Rosa Brooks, “Criticize Israel? You're an Anti-Semite!” Los Angeles Times , September 1, 2006.关于抹黑人权观察组织的精彩的讨论,参见Aryeh Neier, “The Attack on Human Rights Watch,” New York Review of Books ,November 2, 2006, pp.41—44;以及Philip Weiss, “Israel Lobby Watch,”Nation , September 18, 2006。也可参见 Kathleen Peratis, “Diversionary Strike on a Rights Group,” Washington Post , August 30, 2006,以及Ian Seiderman,“Right of Reply: Biased Against Israel?” Jerusalem Post , September 11,2006。

〔124〕引自Nathan Guttman and Yaakov Katz, “Israel Condemned for Cluster Bomb Use,” Jerusalem Post , September 7, 2006。

〔125〕Nathan Guttman, “US Senate Rejects Bid to Curb Use of Cluster Bombs,”Jerusalem Post , September 8, 2006.美国以色列公共事务委员会在挫败这一立法中所起作用的叙述,以人权观察组织的信息为基础。2006年9月13日、9月14日,2007年5月30日,人权观察组织与两位作者的私人通信。

〔126〕引自John Walsh, “AIPAC Congratulates Itself on the Slaughter in Lebanon,” CounterPunch.org , August 16, 2006。

〔127〕引自“To Israel with Love.”

〔128〕William Kristol, “It's Our War: Bush Should Go to Jerusalem—and the U.S.Should Confront Iran,” Weekly Standard , July 24, 2006.也可参见 Jim Lobe,“Energized Neocons Say Israel's Fight Is Washington's,” Antiwar.com , July 18,2006; Krauthammer, “Israel's Lost Moment”,以及Charles Krauthammer,“Lebanon: The Only Exit Strategy,” Washington Post , July 19, 2006。

〔129〕引自Tovah Lazaroff, “‘Evangelicals the World Over Are Praying Fervently for Israel’,” Jerusalem Post , August 9, 2006。也可参见George Conger, “US Support for Israel Soars After Hizbullah War,” Jerusalem Post ,August 27, 2006。

〔130〕“To Israel with Love.”

〔131〕引自Daphna Berman, “U.S.Jewish, Christian Groups Back Lebanon Operation,” Ha'aretz , July 14, 2006。也可参见Zev Chafets, “I Want Falwell in My Foxhole,” Los Angeles Times , July 23, 2006。

〔132〕引自Flaherty, “House Overwhelmingly Backs Israel”。这种论点也反映在“To Israel with Love”之中。

〔133〕除特别加以指出外,本部分中所有的调查数据均来自“Israel, the Palestinians”, PollingReport.com

〔134〕“Zogby Poll: U.S.Should Be Neutral in Lebanon War,” 佐格比国际民意调查公司新闻稿,2006年8月17日。

〔135〕Uri Avnery, “America's Rottweiler,” Gush-Shalom.org , August 26,2006.也可参见 Yossi Ben-Ari, “America's Honey Trap,” Ynetnews.com , July 24,2006; Lawrence F.Kaplan, “America's Proxy War: Other Means,” New Republic ,July 31, 2006,以及Shmuel Rosner, “America's Deadly Messenger,” Ha'aretz ,July 19, 2006.

〔136〕Ali Waked, “Nasrallah: U.S.Pressured Israel into War,”Ynetnews.com , May 7, 2007。

〔137〕引自Hersh, “Watching Lebanon”。也可参见Cobban, “The 33-Day War”。

〔138〕Ori Nir, “Jerusalem Urges Bush: Next Target Hezbollah,” Forward ,April 11, 2003.也可参见Daniel Sobelman and Nathan Guttman, “PM Urges U.S.to Keep Heat on Syria, Calls As-sad ‘Dangerous,’” Ha'aretz , April 15, 2003。

〔139〕引自Hersh, “Watching Lebanon”。

〔140〕引自Avi Shlaim, The Iron WallIsrael and the Arab World (New York:Norton, 2001), p.316。