结论
就像其他的外交政策利益集团一样,以色列游说集团通过各种渠道来寻求影响美国政府。它这样做时的处境要比其他利益集团好得多,这就是它的努力为什么如此奏效的一个原因。但是以色列游说集团并不仅限于在华盛顿圈内建立自己的影响力,它还努力塑造有关以色列和中东的公共话语,结果是美国公众普遍支持亲以色列的方向,对于美国无条件支持以色列的是非曲直不加质疑。这第二个战略正是下一章的主题。
〔1〕20年前,一名国务院高级官员告诉《纽约时报》的戴维·希普勒(David Shipler)说,以色列游说集团“往往误解了所考虑的问题……人们对一些选项并不十分注意”。另一位前里根政府的白宫官员评论说,虽然美国以色列公共事务委员会是“一个因素”,但是他知道,“在任何一种情况下它都不是决定性的因素,至少在分析阶段”。可是这位官员却承认,用希普勒的话来说,“更大的影响力似乎是在政治层面和决策层面”。参见David K.Shipler,“On Middle East Policy, a Major Influence,” New York Times, July 6, 1987。
〔2〕M.J.Rosenberg,“Kangaroo Congressional Hearing,” Weekly Opinion Column,Issue #311, Israel Policy Forum, Washington, DC, February 16, 2007.也可参见Michael F.Brown,“Dems' Disdain for Palestine,” TomPaine.com, February 20,2007,以及Daniel Levy,“Yikes—Warmonger Daniel Pipes Testifying to Congress—Do They Learn Nothing?” February 12, 2007,登录www.tpmcafe.com。
〔3〕阿尔梅的话引自Jake Tapper,“Questions for Dick Armey: Retiring, Not Shy,” New York Times Magazine, September 1, 2002;克莱因的话引自Ron Kampeas,“On Somber Day, DeLay's Spirits Raised by Pro-Israeli Group's Support,”JTA.org, October 2, 2005;迪莱的话引自James Bennet,“DeLay Says Palestinians Bear Burden for Achieving Peace,” New York Times, July 30, 2003。
〔4〕2006年的国会选举之后,100名参议员中有13名是犹太人,435名众议员中有30名是犹太人,比例远远高于犹太人在美国人口中3%左右的比例。Amiram Barkat,“Number of Jewish Parliamentarians Worldwide Reaches Record High,” Ha'aretz, November 9, 2006。
〔5〕Joseph Lieberman,“Speech to the AIPAC National Policy Conference,”March 2007,登录http://lieberman.senate.gov/newsroom/release.cfm?id=270526;Charles Schumer,“The Peace Process Has Been One-Sided”(interview), Middle East Quarterly 7, no.4(December 2000); Henry Waxman,“Israel Fights for Survival,” Beverly Hills Weekly (online), April 19, 2002,以及Robert Wexler,“Israel and the Middle East,”登录http://wexler.house.gov/issues.php?ID=19。
〔6〕引自Matthew E.Berger,“US Vote May Alter Stance on Middle East,”Jerusalem Post, November 7, 2006。
〔7〕引自Janine Zacharia,“Lantos's List,” Jerusalem Post, April 13,2001。也可参见Jeffrey Blankfort,“A Tale of Two Members of Congress and the Capitol Hill Police,” CounterPunch.org, April 17, 2006,以及Mark Simon,“Middle East Hits Home in House Race,” San Francisco Chronicle (online),May 16, 2002。
〔8〕之所以将Lantos “is true blue and white”一句翻译成兰托斯“是一个以色列的真正支持者”,是因为以色列的国旗颜色是由蓝、白两色所组成的。——译者注。
〔9〕引自Mitchell Bard,“Israeli Lobby Power,” Midstream 33, no.1(January 1987):8。
〔10〕关于对美国以色列公共事务委员会的结构和运作更进一步的分析——该分析对此处提供的观点进行了补充,参见Michael Massing,“The Storm over the Israel Lobby,”New York Review of Books, June 8, 2006。也可参见Paul Findley, They Dare to Speak Out: People and Institutions Confront Israel's Lobby, 3rd ed.(Chicago:Lawrence Hill, 2003),以及Michael Lind,“The Israel Lobby,” Prospect 73(April 2002)。
〔11〕所引用的克林顿、金里奇、雷德和《纽约时报》的话,可进入美国以色列公共事务委员会的网站,登录www.aipac.org/documents/whoweare.html#say, on January 14,2005。 2007年5月,所引用的《纽约时报》的话还能在上述网站上找到;所引用的上述其他人的话则已被该网站撤下。Jeffrey Goldberg,“Real Insiders,” New Yorker, July 4, 2005.所引用的金里奇的声明也可参见Michael Kinsley,“J'accuse, Sort of,”Slate.com, March 12, 2003。
〔12〕Michael Massing,“Deal Breakers,” American Prospect, March 11, 2002,以及Massing,“Storm over the Israel Lobby.”
〔13〕同一篇文章还指出,每5名美国以色列公共事务委员会董事会成员当中,就有1名是2004年总统候选人克里和乔治·W.布什的顶级资金募集人。Thomas B.Edsall and Molly Moore,“Pro-Israel Lobby Has Strong Voice,” Washington Post, September 5,2004.
〔14〕David Biale, Power and Powerlessness in Jewish History (New York:Schocken Books, 1986), pp.186—187.
〔15〕弗里德曼的声明包含在一封致美国以色列公共事务委员会会员的信函中,该信函祝贺会员们在2006年的黎巴嫩战争中成功帮助维持美国对以色列的支持。引自John Walsh,“AIPAC Congratulates Itself on the Slaughter in Lebanon,” CounterPunch.org,August 16, 2006。这项政策成为标准的运作程序已经有一段时间了。1987年,美国以色列公共事务委员会负责人汤姆·戴恩告诉支持者说:“在1985年至1986年的竞选活动中,美国以色列公共事务委员会要求其领导人和工作人员与除1人之外的每一名打算重新参选的参议员会见,另外还要同49名竞逐参议员席位的人和205名竞逐众议员席位的人会见,其中包括任何一名新的竞逐者。”引自Robert Pear and Richard L.Berke,“Pro-Israel Group Exerts Quiet Might as It Rallies Supporters in Congress,” New York Times, July 7, 1987。
〔16〕海登还说道,他甘愿为以色列1982年入侵黎巴嫩进行辩护,是“我在政治生涯中所犯下的错误”。Tom Hayden,“Things Come' Round in Mideast,” truthdig.com,July 18, 2006.
〔17〕哈里·隆斯代尔与本书两位作者2006年5月16日的私人通信。哈里还指出道:“参议员哈特菲尔德所花费的竞选费依然超过了我,而我则败选了。”这一结果证明了这种显而易见的观点,即美国以色列公共事务委员会并非在每次选举中都成功。
〔18〕埃文斯的话引自John J.Fialka,“Linked Donations? Political Contributions from Pro-Israel PACs Suggest Coordination,” Wall Street Journal,June 24, 1987。
〔19〕Goldberg,“Real Insiders.”
〔20〕Charles R.Babcock,“Papers Link Pro-Israel Lobby to Political Funding Efforts,” Washington Post, November 14, 1988,以及Fialka,“Political Contributions from Pro-Israel PACs”。
〔21〕关于联邦选举委员会的裁决,参见John J.Fialka,“Pro-Israel Lobbying Group Is Accused of Breaking U.S.Campaign-Funds Law,” Wall Street Journal,January 13, 1989,以及Charles R.Babcock,“FEC Rules Pro-Israel Lobby, PACs Are Not ‘Affiliated,’” Washington Post, December 22, 1990。
〔22〕David D.Newsom, The Public Dimension of Foreign Policy (Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1996), p.187.
〔23〕“Pro-Israel Contributions to Federal Candidates, 2005—2006,”登录www.opensecrets.org/pacs/industry.asp?txt=Q05&cycle=20006。
〔24〕Lexington,“Taming Leviathan,” Economist, March 15, 2007; 也可参见Kelley Beaucar Vlahos,“Pro-Israel Lobby a Force to Be Reckoned With,”FOXnews.com, May 28, 2002; Massing,“Deal Breakers”,以及Massing,“Storm over the Israel Lobby”。
〔25〕引自Vlahos,“Pro-Israel Lobby”。
〔26〕这些数字只包括政治行动委员会的捐赠,而不包括个人捐赠。计算出自政治反应中心的网站,登录www.opensecrets.org。
〔27〕Ron Kampeas,“Pro-Israel Political Funds in U.S.Target Friendly Incumbents—and Challengers,” JTA.org, October 3, 2006.
〔28〕Janet McMahon,“Record Pro-Israel PAC Contributions Failed to Save Senate Minority Leader Tom Daschle's Seat,” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (online), July 2005.
〔29〕Jonathan Allen,“McKinney Opponent Rakes in Pro-Israel Cash,” The Hill, August 2, 2006,登录www.hillnews.com。根据政治反应中心的说法,麦金尼在其初选中大约花了36.5万美元,而胜选者汉克·约翰逊则在初选中总共花了80万美元。也可参见David Firestone,“A Nation Challenged: The Lawmaker; Call to Study U.S.Stance on Mideast Draws Anger,” New York Times, October 18, 2001; Nathan Guttman,“Lobbying for the Pro-Israel Candidates,” Ha'aretz, July 7, 2004;“Mideast Fuels 2 Democratic Primaries,” Washington Post, June 6, 2002,以及Jonathan Weisman,“House Incumbents McKinney, Schwarz Fall in Primaries,”Washington Post, August 9, 2006。
〔30〕Goldberg,“Real Insiders.”
〔31〕John J.Fialka,“Pro-Israel Politics: Jewish Groups Increase Campaign Donations, Target Them Precisely,” Wall Street Journal, August 3, 1983,以及Richard H.Curtiss, Stealth PACs: How Israel's American Lobby Seeks to Control U.S.Middle East Policy, 4th ed.(Washington, DC: American Educational Trust,1996), p.47.
〔32〕Goldberg,“Real Insiders.” 也可参见David M.Halbfinger,“Generational Battle Turns Nasty in Alabama Primary,” New York Times, June 3, 2002; Tom Hamburger,“Mideast Haunts Alabama Race,” Wall Street Journal, May 31, 2002;“Money from Supporters of Israel Played Role in Alabama Upset,” New York Times,June 27, 2002; Juliet Eilperin,“Davis Ousts Rep.Hilliard in Alabama Runoff,”Washington Post, June 26, 2002,以及Benjamin Soskis,“Pro-Israel Lobby Backing Challenger in Alabama Race,” Forward, May 10, 2002。
〔33〕引自Edward Walsh,“Jewish PACs Flex Muscle: On Hill, Being Viewed as Anti-Israel Can Be Risky,” Washington Post, May 10, 1986, Curtiss, Stealth PACs, pp.65—66。关于这些案例的另外细节,参见Findley, They Dare to Speak Out,chap.3。
〔34〕Adlai Stevenson III,“The Black Book,”日期不定的未出版书稿;以及与本书两位作者2007年3月22日的私人通信。
〔35〕“Californian Spent $1.1 Million on Illinois Race,” New York Times,October 10, 1985; Richard L.Berke, “Cranston Backer Guilty in Campaign Finance Case,” New York Times, May 8, 1990,以及Tom Tugend,“Israel Financial Backer Convicted on U.S.Election Law Charges,” Jerusalem Post, May 7,1990.
〔36〕引自Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), p.191。本段落中的细节来自Ibid., pp.189—191。也可参见Charles R.Babcock,“Pro-Israel Political Activists Enforce ‘Percy Factor,’” Washington Post, August 7, 1986。
〔37〕引自John Diamond and Brianna B.Piec,“Pro-Israel Groups Intensify Political Front in U.S.,” Chicago Tribune, April 16, 2002。
〔38〕Lucille Barnes,“Retiring Sen.Jesse Helms Caved to Pro-Israel Lobby Halfway Through His Career,” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, March 2002, p.34; Tom Hamburger and Jim VandeHei,“Chosen People: How Israel Became a Favorite Cause of Christian Right,” Wall Street Journal, May 23, 2002.(https://www.daowen.com)
〔39〕所引用的弗里德曼的话参见Patrick Healy,“Clinton Vows to Back Israel in Latest Mideast Conflict,” New York Times, July 18, 2006。也可参见Adam Dickter,“Hillary: ‘I Had a Lot to Prove,’” Jewish Week, November 18,2005; Joshua Frank,“Hillary Clinton and the Israel Lobby,” Antiwar.com,January 23, 2007; Rachel Z.Friedman,“Senator Israel,” National Review Online, May 25, 2005; Ron Kampeas,“Candidates for 2008 Courting Jewish Support,” Jerusalem Post, January 24, 2007; E.J.Kessler,“Hillary the Favorite in Race for Jewish Do nations,” Forward, January 26, 2007,以及Kristen Lombardi,“Hillary Calls Israel a ‘Beacon’ of Democracy,” Village Voice (online), December 11, 2005。
〔40〕Kessler,“Hillary the Favorite in Race for Jewish Donations”;竞选资金数据来自政治反应中心,登录www.opensecrets.org。
〔41〕有时候,美国以色列公共事务委员会和其他的亲以色列团体,仅仅只是鼓励潜在的敌人保持沉默而已,就像他们在2002年新罕布什尔州参议员竞选时对约翰·苏努努(John Sununu)所做的那样。苏努努有两项负资产:他是巴勒斯坦和黎巴嫩后裔,而且以色列游说集团中的某些团体认为他的投票记录并不那么明朗。全国犹太人民主理事会(National Jewish Democratic Council)发表一份新闻稿说,他在同以色列有关问题上的投票记录“以一种最不坦率的方式而表现突出”,而且美国以色列公共事务委员会清楚表明他是主要目标,因而派遣以色列前总理本杰明·内塔尼亚胡去为苏努努的主要对手进行竞选。根据共和党犹太人联盟执行主任的说法,苏努努以“一份令人鼓舞的意见书”进行回应,因为该意见书强调了他对维持以色列军事优势的承诺。胜选之后,苏努努对以色列2006年夏天在黎巴嫩的轰炸行动的反应是保持缄默。参见National Jewish Democratic Council,“John Sununu:A Singular Voting Record,” press release, October 28, 2002; Matthew E.Berger,“New Republican Congress Retains Pro-Israel Bent,” JTA.org, November 8, 2002。另外的背景资料,参见Franklin Foer,“Foreign Aid: A Middle East Proxy War in New Hampshire,” New Republic, November 26, 2001; Ralph Z.Hallow,“Pro-Israel Lobby Looks for Deal with Sununu,” Washington Times, September 4, 2002,以及Ori Nir,“Despite Hype, Israel Lobby Sits Out Tight New Hampshire Race,”Forward, November 8, 2002。
〔42〕“A Letter to AIPAC,” New York Review of Books, June 8, 2006.
〔43〕引自George D.Moffett III,“Israeli Lobby Virtually Unmatched,”Christian Science Monitor, June 28, 1991。
〔44〕所引用的阿米塔伊的话参见Berger,“New Republican Congress”; 所引用的卡特的话参见Yitzhak Benhorin,“Balanced Stand on ME Is Political Suicide, Says Carter,” Ynetnews.com, February 26, 2007。
〔45〕Richard L.Hall and Alan V.Deardorff,“Lobbying as Legislative Subsidy,”American Political Science Review 100, no.1(February 2006).
〔46〕引自Camille Mansour, Beyond Alliance: Israel in U.S.Foreign Policy,trans.James A.Cohen(New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), p.242.
〔47〕Jonathan Weisman and Jeffrey H.Birnbaum,“Senate Passes Ethics Package,” Washington Post, January 19, 2007; Nathan Guttman,“Jewish Groups to Challenge Ethics Reform,” Forward, December 1, 2006; Jim Abourezk,“The Hidden Cost of Free Congressional Trips to Israel,” Christian Science Monitor,January 26, 2007,以及the AIEF entry at the Center for Public Integrity,登录www.publicintegrity.org。
〔48〕Stephen Isaacs, Jews and American Politics (New York: Doubleday,1974), pp.255—257.
〔49〕引自Seth P.Tillman, The United States in the Middle East: Interests and Obstacles (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), p.67。
〔50〕致赖斯信函的文本登录www.aipac.org/Publications/SourceMaterials CongressionalAction/Nelson-Ensign-Letter-FINAL.pdf。也可参见Nathan Guttmann,“AIPAC Urges U.S.to End Contacts with Palestinian Authority,” Forward, March 14, 2007。
〔51〕引自Lloyd Grove,“On the March for Israel; The Lobbyists from AIPAC,Girding for Battle in the New World Order,” Washington Post, June 13, 1991。
〔52〕虽然美国以色列公共事务委员会已能够利用其政治力量以避免注册登记为另一个政府的代理者,但是由于拉里·富兰克林的间谍丑闻,故而它现在特别关心这个问题,而因此它正相当竭力地强调其“属于美国这边”。参见Ron Kampeas,“New Ruling in AIPAC Case Raises Questions about ‘Foreign Agents,’” JTA.org, August 23, 2006;Ori Nir,“Leaders Fear Probe Will Force Pro-Israel Lobby to File as ‘Foreign Agent,’” Forward, December 31, 2004,以及Ori Nir,“Leaders Stress American Side of AIPAC,” Forward, May 27, 2005。
〔53〕“Sen.Hollings Floor Statement Setting the Record Straight on His Mideast Newspaper Column,” May 20, 2004, 虽然该文最初贴在这位前参议员的网页上(现已删除),但是依然可以登录www.shalomctr.org/node/620。
〔54〕引自Grove,“On the March for Israel”。
〔55〕沙龙的评论发表在美国以色列公共事务委员会于2003年8月29日至9月11日在《芝加哥犹太人星报》上所做的广告中;奥尔默特的声明引自“To Israel with Love,”Economist, August 5, 2006。
〔56〕乔丹写道:“民主党全国财务委员会的125名成员中,70多人是犹太人;1976年,超过60%的民主党大捐助者是犹太人;1972年尼克松所募集的资金超过60%是来自犹太捐助者;汉弗莱1968年竞选所募集的资金超过75%是来自犹太捐助者; ‘铲子’·杰克逊在民主党初选时所募集的资金超过90%是来自犹太捐助者;尽管存在这样一个事实,即尽管你当选希望很小,并且来自这个国家的犹太人社会规模较小的地区,但是我们初选资金的大约35%是来自犹太支持者。” Hamilton Jordan, Confidential File, Box 34, File“Foreign Policy/Domestic Politics Memo, HJ Memo, 6/77,” Atlanta, Carter Library,declassified June 12, 1990.
〔57〕Thomas B.Edsall and Alan Cooperman,“GOP Uses Remarks to Court Jews,”Washington Post, March 13, 2003.也可参见James D.Besser, “Jews' Primary Role Expanding,” Jewish Week, January 23, 2004; Alexander Bolton,“Jewish Defections Irk Democrats,” The Hill (online), March 30, 2004,以及E.J.Kessler,“Ancient Woes Resurfacing as Dean Eyes Top Dem Post,” Forward,January 28, 2005。
〔58〕Isaacs, Jews and American Politics, pp.115—139; Amy Keller,“Chasing Jewish Dollars: Can GOP Narrow Money Gap in 2004?” Atlanta Jewish Times (online), January 17, 2003,以及Kessler,“Hillary the Favorite in Race for Jewish Donations”。
〔59〕Jeffrey S.Helmreich,“The Israel Swing Factor: How the American Jewish Vote Influences U.S.Elections,” Jerusalem Letter/Viewpoints (online) 446( January 15, 2001):1.
〔60〕Kampeas,“Candidates for 2008.”
〔61〕E.J.Kessler,“Lieberman and Dean Spar over Israel,” Forward,September 12, 2003; Stephen Zunes,“Attacks on Dean Expose Democrats' Shift to the Right,” Tikkun.org, November/December 2003.
〔62〕Zunes,“Attacks on Dean”; and James D.Besser,“Dean's Jewish Problem,” Chicago Jewish Star, December 19, 2003-January 8, 2004.
〔63〕E.J.Kessler,“Dean Plans to Visit Israel, Political Baggage in Tow,”Forward, July 8, 2005; Zunes,“Attacks on Dean.”
〔64〕斯坦纳-卡茨对话的副本可登录www.wrmea.com/backissues/1292/9212013.html。也可参见Thomas L.Friedman,“Pro-Israel Lobbyist Quits over Audio-taped Boasts,”New York Times, November 5, 1992,以及“Israeli Lobby President Resigns over Promises; Bragged to Contributor About Lies to Clinton,” Washington Times,November 4, 1992。
〔65〕John Heilprin,“Ex-Deputy Pleads Guilty in Abramoff Case,” Boston Globe, March 23, 2007; Stacey Schultz,“Mr.Outside Moves Inside,” U.S.News& World Report, March 16, 2003.
〔66〕Laura Blumenfeld,“Three Peace Suits; For These Passionate American Diplomats, a Middle East Settlement Is the Goal of a Lifetime,” Washington Post, February 24, 1997; Clayton E.Swisher, The Truth About Camp David: The Untold Story About the Collapse of the Middle East Peace Process (New York:Nation Books, 2004), pp.35—38, 183—187.在对罗斯叙述有关中东和平进程失败的作品《错失的和平》进行评论时,以色列历史学家阿维·施莱姆把克林顿团队描绘成美国历史上“最热忱的亲以色列”政府之一,并且说“很难想到比丹尼斯·罗斯在心态上更典型地把以色列放在首位的美国官员”。Avi Shlaim,“The Lost Steps,” Nation, August 30,2004.也可参见Michael C.Desch,“The Peace That Failed,” American Conservative,November 8, 2004; Jerome Slater,“The Missing Pieces in The Missing Peace,”Tikkun.org, May 2005。
〔67〕克林顿总统的国家安全顾问塞缪尔·伯杰(Samuel Berger)报告说,在戴维营谈判期间的某个时刻(2000年7月),丹尼斯·罗斯曾评论道:“如果巴拉克给出的更多,我将反对这项协议。”未编辑过的手稿“Comments by Sandy Berger at the Launch of How Israelis and Palestinians Negotiate(USIP Press, 2005),” U.S.Institute of Peace, Washington, DC, June 7, 2005,登录www.usip.org/events/2005/0607-beberger.pdf。
〔68〕Hussein Agha and Robert Malley,“The Tragedy of Errors,” New York Review of Books, August 9, 2001.巴勒斯坦人的抱怨引自Blumenfeld,“Three Peace Suits”。
〔69〕David K.Shipler,“On Middle East Policy, a Major Influence,” New York Times, July 6, 1987.
〔70〕Douglas Brinkley,“The Lives They Lived; Out of the Loop,” New York Times Magazine, December 29, 2002.
〔71〕当然,马留斯并不是一个反犹分子。他只是在有关评论中写道:“(这本书的)有关以色列秘密警察辛贝特残忍行为的叙述,与第二次世界大战期间纳粹占领区盖世太保的故事有着惊人的相似。” Lloyd Grove,“The Outspoken Speechwriter; Gore Reverses Hiring Decision After Review Critical of Israel,” Washington Post, July 19,1995,以及Richard Marius,“Al Gore and Me, or How Marty Peretz Saved Me from Packing My Bags for Washington,” Journal of Palestine Studies 25, no.2(Winter 1996): 54—59。
〔72〕Lawrence Kaplan,“Torpedo Boat: How Bush Turned on Arafat,” New Republic, February 18, 2002.
〔73〕Elliott Abrams, Faith or Fear: How Jews Can Survive in a Christian America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), p.181.
〔74〕Nathan Guttmann,“From Clemency to a Senior Post,” Ha'aretz,December 16, 2002.