结论
以色列游说集团完全不是阴谋小集团或阴谋诡计;它是进行公开运作的,并且自豪地宣扬它的影响力。虽然组成以色列游说集团的团体和个人处于对美国外交政策施加影响的特别有利的位置,但是在基础运作方面,以色列游说集团与其他利益集团没有什么不同,如农业游说集团、钢铁和纺织工人游说集团以及许多族裔的游说集团,简而言之,使之与其他游说集团不同的,乃是它那非比寻常的效力。在下面的两章中,我们将考察它为取得这些目标所使用的战略。
〔1〕Andrew C.Revkin, “Bush Aide Edited Climate Reports,” New York Times ,June 8, 2005; Andrew C.Revkin and Matthew Wald, “Material Shows Weakening of Climate Reports in Hundreds of Instances,” New York Times , March 20, 2007.
〔2〕关于那些族裔的游说集团及其对美国外交政策影响的重要作品包括Tony Smith,Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000); Ethnicity and U.S.Foreign Policy , 2nd ed., ed.A.A.Said(New York: Praeger, 1981);Ethnic Groups and U.S.Foreign Policy , ed.M.E.Ahrari(New York: Greenwood Press,1987); Paul Watanabe, Ethnic Groups, Congress, and American Foreign Policy:The Politics of the Turkish Arms Embargo (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,1984),以及R.Hrair Dekmejian and Angelos Themelis, “Ethnic Lobbies in U.S.Foreign Policy: A Comparative Analysis of the Jewish, Greek, Armenian and Turkish Lobbies,” Occasional Research Paper no.13, Institute of International Relations, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens,Greece, October 1997。
〔3〕这是政治分析中的常见问题。例如,虽然“自由派”和“保守派”的概念都很清楚明白且不具争议性,很容易想到每种类型的范例(例如,参议员特德·肯尼迪是“自由派”,而前众议员纽特·金里奇则是“保守派”)。然而,有的人却难以归类,例如参议员约瑟夫·利伯曼或已故的参议员亨利·“铲子”·杰克逊,他们两人在国内问题上是自由派,但在外交政策问题上则是保守派。
〔4〕Melvin I.Urofsky, American Zionism from Herzl to the Holocaust (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1975), p.1; Steven T.Rosenthal, “Long Distance Nationalism: American Jews, Zionism, and Israel,” in The Cambridge Companion to American Judaism , ed.Dana Evan Kaplan(New York: Cambridge University Press,2005), p.209.
〔5〕Robert H.Trice, “Domestic Interest Groups and the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” in Said, Ethnicity and U.S.Foreign Policy , pp.121—122.
〔6〕Steven M.Cohen, The 2004 National Survey of American Jews , sponsored by the Jewish Agency for Israel's Department of Jewish-Zionist Education,February 24, 2005.也可参见2006 Annual Survey of American Jewish Opinion ,conducted September 25-October 16, 2006, American Jewish Committee, October 18,2006; Steven M.Cohen, “Poll: Attachment of U.S.Jews to Israel Falls in Past 2 Years,” Forward , March 4, 2005,以及M.J.Rosenberg, “Letting Israel Sell Itself,” Weekly Opinion Column, Issue #218, Israel Policy Forum, Washington,DC, March 18, 2005。最近一份为美国犹太人委员会准备的报告指出:“在几项研究之间存在一个共识,即以色列对年轻人的犹太身份并不是核心问题。” Jacob B.Ukeles et al.,“Young Jewish Adults in the United States Today,” American Jewish Committee,September 2006, p.34.也可参见Amiram Barkat, “Young American Jews Are More Ambivalent Toward Israel, Study Shows,” Ha'aretz , March 7, 2005。
〔7〕就像主要的犹太机构犹太人全国社会关系顾问委员会联合项目计划在1957年所说的那样:“美国公众将美国犹太人对以色列的关注……作为一种自然正常的利益表现来接受,而这种利益表现则是以同情和许多美国人普遍都拥有的一种情感联系为基础的。”引自Jack Wertheimer, “Jewish Organizational Life in the United States Since 1945,”American Jewish Yearbook 1995(New York: American Jewish Committee, 1995),p.13。
〔8〕Rosenthal, “Long Distance Nationalism,” p.211; Thomas A.Kolsky,Jews Against Zionism: The American Council for Judaism, 1942—1948(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990).
〔9〕立场在不断演变的犹太教革新派犹太法师机构美国拉比中央会议(Central Conference of American Rabbis, CCAR)很好地掌握了这种变化。1897年,美国拉比中央会议宣称:“我们完全不同意建立一个犹太国家的任何尝试。这样的尝试显示出对以色列使命的误解。”而且它也不赞成1917年的《贝尔福宣言》。与此相对照,美国拉比中央会议在1967年却宣称:“自己同以色列国家和人民的团结。他们的胜利就是我们的胜利。他们的磨难就是我们的磨难。他们的命运就是我们的命运。”引自Chaim I.Waxman, “All in the Family: American Jewish Attachments to Israel,” in A New Jewry? America Since the Second World War , Studies in Contemporary Jewry: An Annual, Vol.Ⅷ,ed.Peter Y.Medding(New York: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University, 1992), p.140。
〔10〕Rosenthal, “Long Distance Nationalism,” p.212.
〔11〕位于纽约第5大街155号的一个犹太复国主义组织。——译者注
〔12〕犹太妇女于1912年成立的一个犹太复国主义组织。——译者注
〔13〕Waxman, “All in the Family,” p.134.注意这样一个例子,列在美国犹太人大会核心议程声明中的第一项内容,是“以色列及世界犹太人社会的安全和保护”,登录www.ajcongress.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about。今天的情形也与此相似,在2005年版的年鉴中,有90多个被认为是“同以色列有关的”独立的团体。
〔14〕“Who We Are”以及“What We Do,”登录美国主要犹太组织总裁会议网址,www.conference ofpresidents.org/content.asp?id=52。作为对助理国务卿亨利·拜罗德(Henry Byroade)抱怨——他说他同许多独立的犹太组织打交道有困难,并且说这些组织用一个声音说话是有益的——的回应,美国主要犹太组织总裁会议在1954年成立了。参见Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), pp.40—41。
〔15〕这一数字忽略了个人捐赠,因而低估了亲以色列竞选资金捐赠的作用。登录www.crp.org/pacs/industry.asp?txt=Q05&cycle=2006。关于“秘密政治行动委员会”的一般现象,参见Richard H.Curtiss, Stealth PACs: Lobbying Congress for Control of U.S.Middle East Policy , 4th ed(Washington, DC: American Educational Trust,1996)。
〔16〕Jeffrey H.Birnbaum, “Washington's Power 25,” Fortune , December 8,1997.在一项2001年进行的类似研究中,美国以色列公共事务委员会位列第4。参见Jeffrey H.Birnbaum and Russell Newell, “Fat and Happy in D.C.,” Fortune , May 28,2001。
〔17〕Richard E.Cohen and Peter Bell, “Congressional Insiders Poll,”National Journal , March 5, 2005; James D.Besser, “Most Muscle? It's NRA,Then AIPAC and AARP,” Chicago Jewish Star , March 11—24, 2005.
〔18〕迪马利的话引自Robert Pear with Richard L.Berke, “Pro-Israel Group Exerts Quiet Might as It Rallies Supporters in Congress,” New York Times ,July 7, 1987;汉密尔顿的话引自George D.Moffett III, “Israeli Lobby Virtually Unmatched,” Christian Science Monitor , June 28, 1991。
〔19〕关于布兰代斯、怀斯等人所起的作用,参见Irvine Anderson, Biblical Interpretation and Middle East Policy: The Promised Land, America and Israel,1917—2002(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), pp.61—62;以及Peter Grose, Israel in the Mind of America (New York: Knopf, 1983), pp.67—71.杜鲁门的前商业伙伴埃迪·雅各布森(Eddie Jacobson)说服他在1948年会见蔡姆·韦茨曼(Chaim Weizmann),而像戴维·奈尔斯(David Niles)和克拉克·克利福德(Clark Clifford)这样的亲犹太复国主义顾问,则帮助说服杜鲁门支持1947的分治计划,并在1948年承认这个新的国家。关于各种影响杜鲁门作出决定的不同观点,参见Peter L.Hahn,Caught in the Middle East: U.S.Policy Toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1948—1961(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp.26—31 and chaps.2—3; Zvi Ganin, Truman, American Jewry, and Israel, 1945—1948(New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979); Steven L.Spiegel, The Other Arab-Israel Conflict: Making America's Middle East Policy from Truman to Reagan (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1985), chap.2; Kenneth Ray Bain, The March to Zion: United States Policy and the Founding of Israel (College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1979),以及Warren Bass, Support Any Friend: Kennedy's Middle East and the Making of the U.S.-Israeli Alliance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp.23—34。
〔20〕Lloyd Grove, “The Men with Muscle: The AIPAC Leaders, Battling for Israel and Among Themselves,” Washington Post , June 14, 1991.
〔21〕J.J.Goldberg, Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment(New York: Basic Books, 1996), p.158.
〔22〕Stuart Eizenstat, “Loving Israel, Warts and All,” Foreign Policy 81(Winter 1990—1991): 92.
〔23〕Ibid., Melvin I.Urofsky, We Are One! American Jewry and Israel(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978).
〔24〕杰克·沃特海默说:“几乎没有什么疑问,作为六日战争的结果,有组织的犹太社会发生了深刻变化……美国犹太人完全认同以色列,这种认同激励犹太人社会提供前所未有的慈善捐助和志愿活动。”参见“Jewish Organizational Life,” p.32; Menahem Kaufman, “Envisaging Israel: The Case of the United Jewish Appeal,” in Envisioning Israel: The Changing Ideals and Images of North American Jews ,ed.Allon Gal(Jerusalem: Magnes Press/Hebrew University, 1996), pp.232—234。
〔25〕Wertheimer, “Jewish Organizational Life,” pp.32—33.
〔26〕Ibid., p.55.
〔27〕引自Wolf Blitzer, “The AIPAC Formula,” Moment , November 1981,p.23。
〔28〕美国以色列公共事务委员会并没有披露其年度预算;此处报道的数字来自Blitzer,“AIPAC Formula,” p.23; Lloyd Grove, “On the March for Israel; The Lobbyists from AIPAC, Girding for Battle in the New World Order,” Washington Post , June 13, 1991; Jeffrey H.Birnbaum, “Pro-Israel Lobby Holds Meeting Amid Worries,” Washington Post , May 19, 2005; Thomas B.Edsall and Molly Moore, “Pro-Israel Lobby Has Strong Voice,” Washington Post , September 5,2004,以及 James Petras, “AIPAC on Trial,” CounterPunch.org , January 7—8,2006。
〔29〕引自Goldberg, Jewish Power , p.223。
〔30〕Bass, Support Any Friend , p.147.也可参见Goldberg, Jewish Power ,pp.197—203。
〔31〕一个成立于2003年的美国犹太复国主义组织,其前身是工党复国主义联盟。——译者注
〔32〕Tikkun,希伯来语,清除污渍、恢复和谐之意。——译者注
〔33〕Goldberg, “Old Friend, Shattered Dreams,” Forward , December 24,2004; Esther Kaplan, “The Jewish Divide on Israel,” Nation , July 12, 2004;Michael Massing, “Conservative Jewish Groups Have Clout,” Los Angeles Times ,March 10, 2002; Eric Yoffie, “Reform the Conference,” Forward , August 2,2002,以及William Fisher, “U.S.Jewish Groups Press Mideast Peace,”Antiwar.com , November 25, 2004。
〔34〕Daniel Levy, “Is It Good for the Jews?” American Prospect , July 5,2006.
〔35〕引自Sharon Samber, “Congress Urged Not to Link Israel Aid to China Arms,” JTA.org , June 13, 2000.
〔36〕例如可参见Americans for Peace Now, “Briefing for the 110th Congress:Securing Israel's Future Through Peace,” p.8,登录www.donteverstop.com/files/apn/upl/assets/APN110thBBook.pdf。
〔37〕根据以色列公共政策论坛网站的说法:“以色列公共政策论坛相信,经由两个国家的解决方案到以巴之间的冲突,以色列及其阿拉伯邻国,还有作为一个整体的中东地区,都将变得更加安全、繁荣和稳定。”登录www.ipforum.org/display.cfm?id=1。
〔38〕Jewish Voice for Peace, “U.S.Military Aid to Israel,”登录www.jewishvoiceforpeace/org/publish/printer_17.shtml。
〔39〕引自Tivnan, The Lobby , p.93。
〔40〕引自Goldberg, Jewish Power , p.206。
〔41〕Ori Nir, “FBI Probe: More Questions Than Answers,” Forward , May 13, 2005; 布克班德的话引自Wolf Blitzer, Between Washington and Jerusalem: A Reporter's Notebook (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p.148。
〔42〕关于这些事件,参见Hahn, Caught in the Middle East , pp.39—42, 46—51, 57—59, 79—82。
〔43〕对这些活动(以及所引用的以色列通信)的描述,参见Tom Segev, 1967:Israel, the War, and the Year That Transformed the Middle East , trans.Jessica Cohen(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007), pp.254, 264—265, 304—305。
〔44〕引自David Landau, “The Battle for Washington,” Ha'aretz , March 28,2003。
〔45〕Jonathan Marcus, “Discordant Voices: The U.S.Jewish Community and Israel During the 1980s,” International Affairs 66, no.3(July 1990): 546.也可参见 Sarah Bronson, “Orthodox Leader: U.S.Jews Have No Right to Criticize Israel,” Ha'aretz , August 2, 2004,以及 Daniel Ben Simon, “Storm Warnings,” Ha'aretz , November 14, 2003。
〔46〕Rosenthal, “Long Distance Nationalism,” p.214; 布克班德的话引自Blitzer, Between Washington and Jerusalem , pp.147—148。历史学家戴维·比亚尔(David Biale)写于20世纪80年代的这段话注意到:“过去20年中犹太复国主义在有组织的犹太人社会中所取得的意识形态霸权,已经对使有关以色列政府许多具体政策的辩论缄默下来产生了影响。” Power and Powerlessness in Jewish History (New York:Schocken Books, 1986), p.189。
〔47〕2004 Survey of American Jewish Opinion , conducted August 18—September 1, 2004, American Jewish Committee, September 21, 2004, question 16.以前的调查得出了几乎相同的结果。
〔48〕布雷拉组织的简明历史的描述基于Michael E.Staub, Torn at the Roots: The Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), chap.8; Tivnan, The Lobby , pp.90—96; Wertheimer, “Jewish Organizational Life,” pp.39—43,以及Goldberg, Jewish Power , pp.207—208。
〔49〕Goldberg, Jewish Power , p.208.
〔50〕Tivnan, The Lobby , p.76.戴维·比亚尔在1986年提供了类似的观点,他写道:“对于有组织的犹太人社会来说,缺乏对以色列的支持等同于通敌……以色列是这样一个问题,即缺乏对它的信仰就被当作异端来对待。”Power and Powerlessness , p.188.
〔51〕当伊扎克·沙米尔总理暂时支持一项修改《回归法》(Law of Return)——此法要求皈依犹太教需按照犹太法师法由正统派拉比来进行——的建议的时候,美国犹太人领袖对此公开表现出不快。就像美国改革犹太教运动的拉比埃里克·约菲(Eric Yoffie)所说的那样:“如果以色列的改革派拉比并非拉比、他们主持的皈依并非皈依,那就意味着我们的犹太教并非犹太教,意味着我们是劣等犹太人”。引自Rosenthal, “Long Distance Nationalism,” p.218。 也可参见Goldberg, Jewish Power , pp.337—342。
〔52〕Lawrence Grossman, “Jewish Communal Affairs,” American Jewish Yearbook 1998(New York: American Jewish Committee, 1998), pp.110—111; Tom Tugend, “Talk by N.Y.Times' Friedman Spurs ADL-ZOA Political Fuss,” JTA.org ,December 6, 1996,以及Tom Tugend, “N.Y.Times Columnist Applauds ADL for Not Caving in to ZOA,” JTA.org , December 13, 1996。
〔53〕Inigo Gilmore, “U.S.Jewish Leader Hit over Letter,” Sunday Telegraph(London), August 12, 2003,以及Isi Liebler, “An Open Letter to Edgar Bronfman,” Jerusalem Post , August 6, 2003。
〔54〕这些引用的内容来自Isi Liebler, “When Seymour Met Condi,” Jerusalem Post , November 24, 2005; Ori Nir, “O.U.Chief Decries American Pressure on Israel,” Forward , December 2, 2005; Ori Nir, “Rice Trip Raises Concern over U.S.Pressure on Israel,” Forward , November 18, 2005,以及Seymour D.Reich, “Listen to America,” Jerusalem Post , November 13, 2005。
〔55〕攻击布雷拉组织的支持以色列安全的美国人组织小册子的作者雷尔·琼·艾萨克,写了一篇反对新以色列议程组织的类似论战文章,而美国犹太复国主义组织华盛顿分部则谴责新以色列议程为“亲阿拉伯而非亲以色列”的团体。由于经常性的预算赤字和其他挑战的阻碍,新犹太议程组织经过十二年的艰难维持之后在1992年关门了事。参见Jack Wertheimer, “Breaking the Taboo: Critics of Israel and the American Jewish Establishment,” in Gal, Envisioning Israel , pp.410—411,以及Emily Nepon,“New Jewish Agenda: The History of an Organization, 1980—1992”(B.A.thesis,Goddard College, 2006),登录www.newjewishagenda.org。
〔56〕即犹太人校园生活基金会。——译者注
〔57〕本段落中的资料基于Kaplan, “Jewish Divide on Israel”。在其他两起类似事件中,据报道,加州大学圣塔克鲁兹分校的希勒尔项目主任和伊萨卡学院的希勒尔项目主任,在被谴责发表文章支持以色列人和巴勒斯坦人反对占领的文章后辞职。
〔58〕Ari Paul, “Zionist vs.Zionist,” American Prospect , January 4,2007; Rebecca Spence, “Campus Coalition Split over Progressive Union,”Forward , January 19, 2007; Rebecca Spence, “Groups Flip Flop as Controversy over Liberal Zionists Continues,” Forward , February 2, 2007; Ben Harris,“Group That Criticized Israel to Stay in Campus Coalition Despite Protests,”JTA.org , January 24, 2007; “L.A.Israeli Consul General to Foreign Ministry:UPZ and Breaking the Silence Programs Harm Israel's Image and Must Be Stopped,”美国犹太复国主义组织2007年1月31日的新闻稿,登录www.zoa.org/2007/01/la_israeli_cons.htm。
〔59〕当被问到“在当前局势中你支持还是反对建立一个巴勒斯坦国?”这个问题时,美国犹太人回答“同意”的在2006年占54%, 2005年占56%, 2004年占57%。“Annual Survey of American Jewish Opinion,” 2006年、2005年和2004年,可登录www.ajc.org。
〔60〕Goldberg, Jewish Power , p.161.
〔61〕Ibid., p.217.也可参见pp.159—162, 170—175, 216—223。也可参见Eric Alterman, “AIPAC Runs Right,” Nation , October 10, 2006; Goldberg, “Old Friends”; Massing, “Conservative Jewish Groups”; Rosenthal, “Long Distance Nationalism,” p.217,以及Mark Seal, “Sitting on the Sidelines,”Ha' aretz , December 24, 2004.
〔62〕具体地说,霍恩莱因多年担任为支持以色列定居点贝特·厄伊(Bet El)而募集资金的年度餐会的主席,该定居点位于拉马拉附近。参见Michael Massing, “Deal Breakers,” American Prospect , March 11, 2002,以及Michael Massing, “The Israel Lobby,” Nation , June 10, 2002。
〔63〕Massing, “Deal Breakers.”J.J.戈德堡提供了类似的分析,他写道:“根据(汤姆·)戴恩的说法,执政的执行委员规模扩大为三倍。以前,该委员会由以纽约为基础的犹太人组织那些负责人所控制。现在犹太人社会的领袖则是少数派,其人数被美国以色列公共事务委员会自身的捐赠者所超过。执行委员会的膨胀……使得以色列游说集团不再是一个全国性的犹太人公共组织——而它以前却是如此的,并使之牢牢掌握在少数只忠于美国以色列公共事务委员会的大捐赠者手中。” Jewish Power , p.201.
〔64〕Michael Massing, “The Storm over the Israel Lobby,” New York Review of Books , June 8, 2006; Matthew Dorf, “After Barak Win, AIPAC Reverses Opposition to a Palestinian State,” JTA.org , May 28, 1999.
〔65〕这段情节的叙述参见Goldberg, Jewish Power , pp.54—57。
〔66〕Massing, “Deal Breakers”; and Levy, “Is It Good for the Jews?”
〔67〕Peter Beinart and Hanna Rosin, “AIPAC Unpacked,” New Republic ,September 20, 1993, pp.20—23; Goldberg, Jewish Power, pp.225—226.
〔68〕Waxman, “All in the Family,” pp.143—144.
〔69〕Jonathan Woocher, “The Geo-Politics of the American Jewish Community,”Jerusalem Letter/Viewpoints (online), Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs,January 15, 1992, 3.
〔70〕Thomas L.Friedman, “Foreign Affairs: Mischief Makers,” New York Times, April 5, 1995.
〔71〕就像马辛所指出的那样,虽然以色列公共政策论坛已“设法同有影响力的国会议员建立密切的联系,但是如果缺少正式的国会议员身份和强大的筹款机制,那么它就很难与美国以色列公共事务委员会和美国主要犹太组织总裁会议的影响力相匹敌。Massing, “Deal Breakers.”
〔72〕有关新保守主义最优秀的作品包括Gary Dorrien, The Neoconservative Mind:Politics, Culture, and the War of Ideology (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993); Gary Dorrien, Imperial Designs: Neoconservatism and the New Pax Americana (New York: Routledge, 2004); John Ehrman, The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs, 1945—1994(New Haven:Yale University Press, 2005); Murray Friedman, The Neoconservative Revolution:Jewish Intellectuals and the Shaping of Public Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Francis Fukuyama, America at the Crossroads:Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006); Mark Gerson, The Neoconservative Vision: From the Cold Wars to the Culture Wars (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1996); Goldberg, Jewish Power , pp.159—161; Stefan Halper and Jonathan Clarke, America Alone: The Neoconservatives and the Global Order (New York: Cambridge University Press,2004),以及Irving Kristol, Neoconservatism: The Autobiography of an Idea(New York: Free Press, 1995)。
〔73〕新保守派关于美国外交政策的概貌,参见John J.Mearsheimer, “Hans Morgenthau and the Iraq War: Realism Versus Neo-Conservatism,” posted May 19,2005, opendemocracy.com 。新保守派对外政策作品的说明文集,参见Present Dangers:Crisis and Opportunity in American Foreign and Defense Policy , ed.William Kristol and Robert Kagan(San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2000);对新保守派及其外交政策观点具有洞察力的描述,参见Ian Lustick, Trapped in the War on Terror(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), chap.4。
〔74〕新保守派关于多边主义和制度的典型的声明,参见Charles Krauthammer,“Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World,” 2004 Irving Kristol Lecture, American Enterprise Institute, Washington, DC,February 10, 2004, p.3。新保守派对欧洲观点的例证是Robert Kagan, Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order (New York: Knopf, 2003)。
〔75〕关于趋炎附势的讨论,参见Stephen M.Walt, The Origins of Alliances(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987)。
〔76〕Max Boot, “What the Heck Is a ‘Neocon’?” Wall Street Journal ,December 30, 2002; Max Boot, “Think Again: Neocons,” Foreign Policy 140(January—February 2004), p.22.也可参见Don Atapattu, “Interview with Middle East Scholar Avi Shlaim,” Nation , June 16, 2004; Halper and Clarke,America Alone , pp.41, 58—60, 82, 167—168; Irving Kristol, “The Political Dilemma of American Jews,” Commentary , July 1984, pp.23—29,以及Jim Lobe, “Energized Neocons Say Israel's Fight Is Washington's,”Antiwar.com , July 18, 2006。
〔77〕Benjamin Ginsberg, The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1993), p.231.
〔78〕“A Clean Break: A New Strategy for Securing the Realm,” prepared by the Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies, 1996,登录www.iasps.org/strat1.htm。催生该报告的研究小组由理查德·珀尔主持,其他成员有詹姆斯·科尔伯特(James Colbert)、小查尔斯·费尔班克斯(Charles Fairbanks Jr.)、道格拉斯·费思、罗伯特·洛温伯格(Robert Loewenberg)、乔纳森·托罗普(Jonathan Torop)、戴维·乌姆瑟尔和梅拉夫·乌姆瑟尔。
〔79〕引自Dorrien, Neoconservative Mind , p.344。也可参见ibid., pp.343—345; Ginsberg, Fatal Embrace , pp.231—236,以及John B.Judis, “The Conservative Wars,” New Republic , August 11 and 18, 1986。
〔80〕Patrick J.Buchanan, “Whose War?” American Conservative , March 24,2003; Paul Craig Roberts, “Neocon Treason,” Antiwar.com , August 24, 2004.(https://www.daowen.com)
〔81〕Friedman, Neoconservative Revolution , i.盖尔·贝克尔曼(Gal Beckerman)指出:“承认新保守主义的犹太特性总是触发反犹主义的警告……但对此反犹主义的怀疑也有一些真实性。如果在美国有那么一场犹太人能够独自宣称是其发明的思想运动的话,那就是新保守主义。”参见“The Neoconservative Persuasion,” Forward , January 6,2006。
〔82〕Max Blumenthal, “Born-Agains for Sharon,” Salon.com , October 30,2004; Darrell L.Bock, “Some Christians See a ‘Road Map' to End Times,” Los Angeles Times , June 18, 2003; Nathan Guttman, “Wiping Out Terror, Bringing on Redemption,” Ha'aretz , April 29, 2002; Tom Hamburger and Jim VandeHei,“Chosen People: How Israel Became a Favorite Cause of Christian Right,” Wall Street Journal , May 23, 2002,以及 Paul Nussbaum, “Israel Finds an Ally in American Evangelicals,” Philadelphia Inquirer (online), November 13, 2005。
〔83〕关于基督教的信念如何影响了贝尔福,参见Anderson, Biblical Interpretation , pp.60—62。有些作者认为,基督教的信念还影响了威尔逊对《贝尔福宣言》的支持,以及杜鲁门对以色列建国的支持,虽然他们两个人都不是时代论者。 Ibid.,pp.87—89; Grose, Israel in the Mind of America , pp.67—71.
〔84〕Timothy P.Weber, On the Road to Armageddon: How Evangelicals Became Israel's Best Friend (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2004), pp.188—196.
〔85〕Weber, On the Road to Armageddon , p.184.就像科林·辛德勒所指出的那样:“20世纪70年代基督教右翼的增加因此同以色列右翼的增加平行发生——而六日战争则对这两种现象都起到了催化的作用。”参见“Likud and the Christian Dispensationalists:A Symbiotic Relationship,” Israel Studies 5, no.1(Spring 2000): 163。
〔86〕就像L.纳尔逊·贝尔(L.Nelson Bell)在《今日基督教》(Christianity Today)中所写的那样:“2000多年来耶路撒冷首度完全控制在犹太人手中,使学习《圣经》的人欣喜若狂,并且使他们对《圣经》的精准怀有新的信念。”引自Weber, On the Road to Armageddon , p.184。
〔87〕引自Jane Lampman, “Mixing Prophecy and Politics,” Christian Science Monitor , July 7, 2004。
〔88〕Daniel Pipes, “[Christian Zionism]: Israel's Best Weapon,” New York Post (online), July 15, 2003; Michael Freund, “Christian Zionists Key to Continued U.S.Support for Israel,” Jewish Press (online), December 27, 2006.
〔89〕哈吉的话引自Bill Berkowitz, “Pastor John Hagee Spearheads Christians United for Israel,” Media Transparency , March 19, 2006,登录www.mediatransparency.org/story.php?storyID=116。
〔90〕引用的声明来自国际基督徒和犹太人伙伴组织的网站,登录www.ifcj.org。
〔91〕“The Apple of HIS Eye: Why Christians SHOULD Support Israel,” 登录约翰·哈吉牧师网站www.jhm.org/print-Israel.asp,以及Andrew Higgins, “A Texas Preacher Leads Campaign to Let Israel Fight,” Wall Street Journal , July 27,2006。
〔92〕“Zion's Christian Soldiers,” 60 Minutes , June 8, 2003,登录www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/03/60minutes/printable524268/shtml。
〔93〕引自Lampman, “Mixing Prophecy and Politics”。
〔94〕Weber, On the Road to Armageddon , pp.226—227; Brent Boyer,“Arvada Church Champions Israeli Cause,” Denver Post (online), November 22,2002,以及Danielle Haas, “U.S.Christians Find Cause to Aid Israel;Evangelicals Financing Immigrants, Settlements,” San Francisco Chronicle(online), July 10, 2002。
〔95〕Donald Wagner, “For Zion's Sake,” Middle East Report Online 223(Summer 2002):55.
〔96〕引自Shindler, “Likud and the Christian Dispensationalists,” p.175。
〔97〕“Robertson: God Punished Sharon,” Ynetnews.com , January 6, 2006;“Robertson Suggests Stroke Is Divine Rebuke,” New York Times , January 6,2006,以及 “Robertson Apologizes to Sharon Family,” New York Times , January 13, 2006。
〔98〕引自Barbara Slavin, “Don't Give Up 1967 Lands, DeLay Tells Israel Lobby,” USA Today , April 23, 2002。
〔99〕马修斯要求阿尔梅确认这是他的观点,而阿尔梅则说“是的”。在被批评支持在西岸地区对巴勒斯坦人进行种族清洗之后,阿尔梅后来放弃了自己的这一声明。参见Matthew Engel, “Senior Republican Calls on Israel to Expel West Bank Arabs,”Guardian , May 4, 2002,以及“Richard Armey Supports Ethnic Cleansing of Palestinians,” Media Monitors Network , May 2, 2002,登录www.mediamonitors.net/amr115.html。
〔100〕参议员英霍夫2002年3月4日的议会陈述发言“Peace in the Middle East,”登录http://inhofe.senate.gov/pressapp/record.cfm?id=183110。
〔101〕Shindler, “Likud and the Christian Dispensationalists,” p.156.
〔102〕Grace Halsell, Prophecy and Politics: Militant Evangelists on the Road to Nuclear War (Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill, 1986), pp.71—76.
〔103〕“Pat Robertson Forms Alliance with Mayor of Jerusalem,” Baptist Standard (online), November 11, 2002,以及 “Israel Welcomes Christian Support in Battle for Survival, Sharon Aid[e] Says,” Christian Examiner(online), September 6, 2002。
〔104〕引自Weber, On the Road to Armageddon , pp.214—218。
〔105〕引自Norton Mezvinsky, “The Impact of Christian Zionism on the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” NthPosition.com , March 2005。
〔106〕Jerry Falwell, “On the Threshold of Armageddon,” WorldNetDaily.com ,July 22, 2006; Sarah Posner, “Lobbying for Armageddon,” AlterNet.org ,August 3, 2006.
〔107〕《以西节书》之36和37中以及《以赛亚书》(Isaiah)之66对以色列的复兴进行了预言。——译者注
〔108〕Hal Lindsey, “Mushrooms over the Middle East,” WorldNetDaily.com ,January 12, 2007; John Hagee, Jerusalem Countdown: A Warning to the World(Lake Mary, FL: Frontline, 2006), pp.17.基于他对《圣经》零散段落的解释,哈吉说打击伊朗将驱使俄国领导一个阿拉伯联盟对将被美国抛弃的以色列发动战争。虽然上帝届时将干预进来摧毁以色列的入侵者,但是随后出现的真空将被反基督教的“未来欧盟首领”填补。在欧盟领袖的命令下,西方军队在以色列集结,对“东方之王”(中国)发动世界末日的善恶大决战,届时耶稣重新降临打败反基督者,并且恢复了上帝的王国。哈吉总结道:“我们所知道的世界末日很快就要到来。”(pp.113—122)
〔109〕Christians United for Israel, “CUFI Membership Weekly Update,”December 11, 2006,登录www.cufima.com/id10.html。
〔110〕Shindler, “Likud and the Dispensationalists,” pp.165—166;Kristol, “The Political Dilemma of American Jews.”
〔111〕珀尔姆特的话引自Weber, On the Road to Armageddon , p.232;福克斯曼的评论引自“Jews and Evangelicals: Support for Israel Isn't Everything,” Time ,January 16, 2007。
〔112〕引自Bill Broadway, “The Evangelical-Israeli Connection: Scripture Inspires Many Christians to Support Zionism Politically, Financially,”Washington Post , March 27, 2004。
〔113〕关于哈吉对犹太人令人烦扰不安的态度,参见Jerusalem Countdown , pp.56—57, 109。关于他出席美国以色列公共事务委员会的政策大会,参见Gregory Levey,“Inside America's Powerful Israel Lobby,” Salon.com , March 16, 2007;“Christians for Israel,” Jerusalem Posteditorial, March 14, 2007,以及Sarah Posner, “The Goy Who Cried Wolf,” American Prospect , March 12, 2007。
〔114〕引自James D.Besser, “Hardline Pastor Gets Prime AIPAC Spot,”Jewish Week , March 9, 2007。
〔115〕Naomi M.Cohen, “Dual Loyalties: Zionism and Liberalism,” in Gal,Envisioning Israel , p.326.
〔116〕Jo-Ann Mort, “An Unholy Alliance in Support of Israel,” Los Angeles Times , May 19, 2002.所引用的阿尔菲和戈伦伯格的话来自“Zion's Christian Soldiers”。也可参见 Gershom Gorenberg, The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount (New York: Free Press, 2000),以及 Weber, On the Road to Armageddon , p.231。
〔117〕虽然在巴勒斯坦人第二次起义爆发和“9·11”之后旅游业衰退了,但自那时以来已经开始反弹。联合国统计处估计,以色列2004年得到28亿美元的旅游收益;而以色列官方则报告说,大约29%的游客是基督徒。参见United Nations, World Tourism Organization Statistical Database and Yearbook 2005(New York: United Nations,2005); Eric Silver, “Return of the Tourist,” Jerusalem Report (online),February 21, 2005; Laurie Copans, “Israel: Tourism Surges as Christian Pilgrims Walk in the Footsteps of Jesus,” USA Today , December 13, 2004,以及 William A.Orme, “Fighting in Mideast Blocks Wave of Christian Tourism,”New York Times , November 11, 2000。
〔118〕Anderson, Biblical Interpretation , p.103, p.138.尽管迈克尔·B.奥伦过分强调了时代主义对美国外交政策决定的影响,但是这也是他的作品Power, Faith and Fantasy: America in the Middle East 1776 to the Present (New York: Norton,2007)一书的核心主题。
〔119〕Anderson, Biblical Interpretation , pp.111, 114—115; Ruth W.Mouly,The Religious Right and Israel: The Politics of Armageddon (Cambridge, MA:Political Research Associates, 1985).
〔120〕Zev Chafets, “The Rabbi Who Loved Evangelicals(and Vice Versa),”New York Times Magazine , July 24, 2005.
〔121〕2006年8月,派驻圣地的梵蒂冈公使与圣公会、福音派路德教和叙利亚东正教的主教们在耶路撒冷签署了一项声明,该声明拒绝基督教犹太复国主义的教义,并指责这一运动鼓励“种族排外和永久战争”。参见Matthew Tostevin, “Holy Land Churches Attack Christian Zionism,” Reuters, August 31, 2006。其他许多主流的新教教会则批评以色列的政策,并已认真考虑从在以色列经营的公司中“选择性剥离”(selective divestiture)。然而,以色列游说集团却努力挫败这些努力,并已在很大程度上取得了成功。参见James D.Besser, “Church Poised to Kill Divestment,” Jewish Week , June 23, 2006; Alan Cooperman, “Israel Divestiture Spurs Clash,” Washington Post , September 29, 2004; Michael Conlon, “US Presbyterians Consider Divesting over West Bank,” Washington Post , February 17, 2005; Laurie Goodstein, “Presbyterians Revise Israel Investing Policy,” New York Times ,June 22, 2006; Nathan Guttman, “A Warning Signal from the Churches,”Ha'aretz , November 26, 2004; Chris Moore, “Mainline Protestants Challenge Israel Lobby,” Antiwar.com , December 7, 2004; Marc Perelman, “Effort Eyed to Combat Divestment,” Forward , July 15, 2006,以及 Rachel Pomerance,“Episcopal View on Mideast Conflict an Improvement, Jewish Groups Say,”JTA.org , November 9, 2004。
〔122〕在2006年的黎巴嫩战争之后,基督教犹太复国主义给以色列的相对有限的捐赠,说明了它的有限财力的作用。根据以色列《国土报》的说法,基督教团体捐赠了近2 000万美元用于以色列的重建和安置;相比之下,美国犹太人社会募集到的捐赠款则超过3.4亿美元。参见Daphna Berman, “Christians' Wartime Donations of $20m Went Largely Unheralded,” Ha'aretz , November 3, 2006。
〔123〕关于美国政治中利益集团的作用,参见Frank R.Baumgartner and Beth L.Leech,Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and in Political Science(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Richard L.Hall and Frank W.Wayman, “Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees,” American Political Science Review 84, no.3(September 1990); John Mark Hansen, Gaining Access: Congress and the Farm Lobby, 1919—1981(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Ken Kollman,Outside Lobbying: Public Opinion and Interest Group Strategies (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1998); Richard A.Smith, “Interest Group Influence in the U.S.Congress,” Legislative Studies Quarterly 20, no.1(February, 1995); David B.Truman, The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion (New York: Knopf, 1951),以及James Q.Wilson,Political Organizations (New York: Basic Books, 1973)。
〔124〕引自Mary A.Barberis, “The Arab-Israeli Battle on Capitol Hill,”Virginia Quarterly Review 52, no.2(Spring 1976):209。
〔125〕Trice, “Domestic Interest Groups,” pp.125—126.
〔126〕引自Ben Bradlee Jr., “Israel's Lobby,” Boston Globe , April 29,1984。
〔127〕Shai Feldman, The Future of U.S.-Israeli Strategic Cooperation(Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1996), pp.5—6.
〔128〕引自Grove, “On the March for Israel”。
〔129〕所引用的巴德和杜鲁门的话来自Mitchell Bard, “The Israeli and Arab Lobbies,”登录www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org。也可参见Mark N.Katz, “Where Is the Arab Lobby?” Middle East Times (online), July 3, 2006; Noam N.Levey,“In Politicians' Pro Israel Din, Arab Americans Go Unheard,” Los Angeles Times , July 23, 2006; Ali A.Mazrui, “Between the Crescent and the Star-Spangled Banner: American Muslims and U.S.Foreign Policy,” International Affairs 72, no.3(July 1996); Nabeel A.Khoury, “The Arab Lobby: Problems and Prospects,” Middle East Journal 41, no.3(Summer 1987),以及 Andrea Barron, “Jewish and Arab Diasporas in the United States and Their Impact on U.S.Middle East Policy,” in The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Two Decades of Change ,ed.Yehuda Lukacs and Abdalla M.Battah(Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988),pp.238—259。“巴勒斯坦游说集团”的弱小尤其在以下作品中得到表达:Nora Boustany,“Palestinians' Lone Hand in Washington,” Washington Post , April 19, 2002,以及 George Gedda, “PLO Loses D.C.Office Because of Unpaid Rent,” Chicago Tribune , April 12, 2002。
〔130〕Trice, “Domestic Interest Groups,” p.123.
〔131〕至于典型的例子,参见Harold Siddiqui, “ ‘Oil Lobby Determined to Have Its War’ in Iraq,” Toronto Star (online), January 19, 2003,登录www.commondreams.org。
〔132〕Stephen Zunes, “The Israel Lobby: How Powerful Is It Really?”Foreign Policy in Focus Special Report , May 16, 2006; Noam Chomsky, “The Israel Lobby,” Znet (online), March 28, 2006,以及Martin Peretz, “Oil and Vinegar,” New Republic , March 30, 2006。
〔133〕尤其可参见Craig Unger, House of Bush, House of Saud: The Secret Relationship Between the World's Two Most Powerful Dynasties (New York:Scribner, 2004)。这个主题也是迈克尔·穆尔那部充满争议的纪录片《华氏911》的关键部分。
〔134〕2006年,大约40%的美国原油进口来自加拿大、墨西哥和委内瑞拉;沙特阿拉伯只提供14%的美国原油进口。U.S.Department of Energy, Petroleum Supply Monthly(Washington, DC, February 2007), p.58.
〔135〕Bernard Gwertzman, “U.S.Said to Drop Jordan Arms Sale,” New York Times , March 21, 1984.
〔136〕引自Congressional Quarterly, The Middle East , p.68。
〔137〕Trice, “Domestic Interest Groups,” pp.137—138.
〔138〕参见www.api.org/policy。埃克森美孚和英国石油公司的网站上对外交政策的讨论都同样罕见。
〔139〕引自Tivnan, The Lobby , p.194。
〔140〕Trice, “Domestic Interest Groups,” p.137; William B.Quandt,“United States Policy in the Middle East: Constraints and Choices,” in Political Dynamics in the Middle East, ed.Paul Hammond and Sidney Alexander(New York: Elsevier, 1972), pp.529—530.
〔141〕Danny Fortson, Andrew Murray-Watson, and Tim Webb, “Future of Iraq:The Spoilsof War,” Independent , January 7, 2007.
〔142〕“Cheney Pushed for More Trade with Iran,” FOXnews.com , October 9,2004, 登录www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,134836,00.html。
〔143〕Trice, “Domestic Interest Groups,” pp.137—138.
〔144〕这些所引用的内容来自Roger Hilsman, The Politics of Policy Making in Defense and Foreign Affairs (New York: Harper, 1971), p.149; Bard,“Israeli and Arab Lobbies”,以及“Pro-Israel Lobby on Capitol Hill,” BBC Newsnight (online), May 8, 2003,登录http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/newsnight/3010371.stm。
〔145〕谢菲尔写道:“在那些自由民主的制度中,最值得特别注意的是在美国、加拿大、澳大利亚、丹麦、荷兰和挪威,犹太人能够与巴勒斯坦的犹太人社会以及后来的以色列保持公开深入的关系……这些犹太人社会中的某些部分……对东道国社会和政府展现了全部的忠诚……这些公开认定自己为犹太复国主义运动、巴勒斯坦(伊休夫)犹太人社会,以及后来的以色列的支持者,发展出了双重的忠诚。最坚定的犹太复国主义者和其他以色列的支持者采取的是忠诚分割(divided-loyalties)的立场,也即是说,某些方面他们忠于他们的所在国,而在其他方面则忠于他们的祖国。” Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp.232—233.
〔146〕Malcolm Hoenlein, “Crossing the Line of the Acceptable,” Ha'aretz ,December 31, 2004.
〔147〕Pew Global Attitudes Project, “Muslims in Europe: Economic Worries Top Concerns About Religious and Cultural Identity”(Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, July 6, 2006), p.3.
〔148〕引自David K.Shipler, “On Middle East Policy, a Major Influence,”New York Times , July 6, 1987。
〔149〕引自Kurt Eichenwald, “U.S.Jews Split on Washington's Shift on Palestinian State,” New York Times , October 5, 2001。
〔150〕David S.Cloud and Helene Cooper, “Israel's Protests Are Said to Stall Gulf Arms Sale,” New York Times , April 5, 2007.
〔151〕Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982),p.203.
〔152〕两段引言均来自Goldberg, Jewish Power , pp.232, 235。
〔153〕Eric Alterman, “Can We Talk?” Nation , April 21, 2003.
〔154〕Stephen Steinlight, “The Jewish Stake in America's Changing Demography: Reconsidering a Misguided Immigration Policy,” Backgrounder,Center for Immigration Studies, Washington, DC, October 2001, pp.10—11.关于对此观点更早而同样具有启迪作用的表达,参见Nathan Glazer, “McGovern and the Jews: A Debate,” Commentary , September 1972, p.44。
〔155〕Samuel P.Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to American National Identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), pp.276—291.
〔156〕引自Massing, “Deal Breakers”。
〔157〕Hagee, “The Apple of HIS Eye”; Wagner, “For Zion's Sake,” p.56.也可参见 Lee Underwood, “Israel's Right to the Land,” January 4, 2004,登录http://christianactionforisrael.org.right.html。
〔158〕有关伦尼·本-戴维的信息,登录www.israelunitycoalition.org/sbureau/lbendavid.php。