结论

结论

以色列游说集团所使用的各种战略——就像在本章和前一章中所讨论的那样——正在互为强化,如果政治家知道质疑以色列的政策或美国对以色列的坚定支持具有风险,那么主流媒体要找出那些愿意跟以色列游说集团持不同意见的权威声音就越困难。如果有关以色列的公众话语能够被塑造成大多数美国人都对这个犹太国家怀有普遍正面的印象,那么政治家们就甚至会有更多理由围着以色列游说集团的理由打转。打反犹主义的牌,甚至更多地压制了讨论,允许有关以色列生存的神话不受挑战。尽管其他利益集团以多样的形式来使用类似的战略,但是它们中的大多数只能够梦想着具有亲以色列组织所积聚的政治力量。因此,问题是以色列游说集团对美国的外交政策产生了什么样的影响?它在美国国家利益中具有影响力吗?或者说它鼓励对美国甚至以色列本身有害的政策吗?这恰恰是我们现在要转而关注的一个问题。

〔1〕Robert H.Trice,“Interest Groups and the Foreign Policy Process:U.S.Policy in the Middle East,” Sage Professional Papers in International Studies, ed.V.Davis and M.East(Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1976),pp.63—65.

〔2〕Eric Alterman,“Intractable Foes, Warring Narratives,” MSNBC.com,March 28, 2002.

〔3〕《理性》(Reason)杂志的卡西·扬(Cathy Young)抗议阿特曼将她列入“条件反射式的”亲以色列学者名单之中,而且阿特曼承认了这个错误。

〔4〕克里斯托夫是通过注意到“在民主党人之间或共和党人之间不存在有关我们的以色列政策或巴勒斯坦政策严肃的政治辩论”而开始他的批评的,并且认为这种情况对所有的相关各方都不利,包括以色列本身。虽然这一观点本应不具争议性,但它却招致了来自反诽谤联盟的一封抗议信,而且克里斯托夫的观点还被亲以色列的媒体监察组织美国中东报道精确性委员会描述为“片面指责以色列的做法”。参见他的“Talking About Israel,”New York Times, March 18, 2007;“Letter to the Editor,” New York Times, March 19, 2007,登录www.adl.org/media-watch/newspapers/20070319-NYTimes.htm,以及CAMERA,“Kristof's Blame-Israel Rant,” March 21, 2007,登录www.camera.org/index.asp?x-context=2&x-outlet=139&x-article=1303。

〔5〕引自Bret Stephens,“Eye on the Media by Bret Stephens: Bartley's Journal,” Jerusalem Post, November 22, 2002。

〔6〕Jerome N.Slater,“Muting the Alarm: The New York Times and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, 2000—2006,” International Security 32, no.2(Fall 2007); Howard Friel and Richard Falk, Israel-Palestine on RecordHow the New York Times Misreports Conflict in the Middle East (London: Verso, 2007).

〔7〕Max Frankel, The Times of My Life and My Life with The Times (New York:Random House, 1999), pp.401—403.

〔8〕引自Robert I.Friedman,“Selling Israel to America: The Hasbara Project Targets the U.S.Media,” Mother Jones, February-March 1987。

〔9〕有关佩雷茨恋上以色列的评论引自Alexander Cockburn and Ken Silverstein,Washington Babylon(London: Verso Books, 1996), p.6。他在《新共和》上有关“政党路线”的声明引自J.J.Goldberg, Jewish PowerInside the American Jew ish Establishment (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996), p.299。《时代》杂志曾将佩雷茨领导下的《新共和》描述为“顽固地支持以色列”。参见William A.Henry III,“Breaking the Liberal Pattern,” Time, October 1, 1984。

〔10〕引自Michael Massing,“The Israel Lobby,” Nation, June 10, 2002。

〔11〕Felicity Barringer,“Some U.S.Backers of Israel Boycott Dailies over Mideast Coverage That They Deplore,” New York Times, May 23, 2002; Michael Getler,“Caught in the Crossfire,” Washington Post, May 5, 2002; Tim Jones,“Pro-Israel Groups Take Aim at U.S.News Media,” Chicago Tribune, May 26,2002; Massing,“Israel Lobby”,以及David Shaw,“From Jewish Outlook, Media Are Another Enemy,” Los Angeles Times, April 28, 2002。

〔12〕引自Massing,“Israel Lobby”。

〔13〕引自Friedman,“Selling Israel to America”。

〔14〕伊夫欣的话引自Lloyd Grove,“On the March for Israel; The Lobbyists from AIPAC, Girding for Battle in the New World Order,” Washington Post, June 13, 1991。也可参见Daniel Eisenberg,“AIPAC Attack?” Columbia Journalism Review, January/February 1993; Robert I.Friedman,“The Israel Lobby's Blacklist,” Village Voice, August 4, 1992; Robert I.Friedman,“A PAC with McCarthy,” Village Voice, August 25, 1992; Robert I.Friedman,“The Wobbly Israeli Lobby,”Washington Post, November 1, 1992; Thomas A.Dine and Mayer Mitchell,“The Truth About AIPAC,” Washington Post, November 14, 1992,以及Lawrence N.Cohler,“The AIPAC Flap,” Washington Post, December 5, 1992。

〔15〕例如,可参见“Conflict of Interest Fits NPR Bias,”登录www.camera.org/index.asp?x-context=4&x-outlet=28&x-article=100,以及Joel Berkovsky,“NPR Responds to Claims of Bias with Weeklong Series on Mideast,”JTA.org, October 4, 2002。

〔16〕关于那一条实际的广告,登录www.camera.org/imagesuser/advertisements/large/CAMERA-CarterAD.pdf。

〔17〕对美国中东报道精确性委员会和全国公共广播网的讨论选自Barringer,“Some U.S.Backers”; James D.Besser,“NPR Radio Wars Putting Jewish Groups in a Bind,” Jewish Week, May 20, 2005; Samuel Freedman,“From ‘Balance’ to Censorship: Bush's Cynical Plan for NPR,” Forward, May 27, 2005; Nathan Guttman,“Enough Already from Those Pro-Israel Nudniks,” Ha'aretz, February 1,2005; Mark Jurkowitz,“Blaming the Messenger,” Boston Globe Magazine,February 9, 2003; E.J.Kessler,“Hot Seat Expected for New Chair of Corporation for Public Broadcasting,” Forward, October 28, 2005; Gaby Wenig,“NPR Israel Coverage Sparks Protests,” Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles(online), May 9, 2003,以及Gila Wertheimer,“NPR Dismisses Protest Rallies,” Chicago Jewish Star, May 30-June 12, 2003。

〔18〕Bret Stephens,“An Open Letter to Ian Buruma,” Jerusalem Post,September 5, 2003.布鲁玛起初的文章是“How to Talk About Israel,” New York Times Magazine, August 31, 2003。

〔19〕朱特在接受2007年由荷兰的公共广播公司VPRO 国际频道制作的纪录片《以色列游说集团》采访时,以及在由《伦敦书评》主办、于2006年9月28日在纽约市库珀联盟举行的一次关于以色列游说集团的辩论中,透露了这一事件。关于纪录片的影像资料和这场辩论,可登录www.scribemedia.org/2006/10/11/israel-lobby/和www.youtube.com/profile?user=VPROinternational。

〔20〕James Traub,“Does Abe Foxman Have an Anti-Anti-Semite Problem?” New York Times Magazine, January 14, 2007.

〔21〕登录www.conferenceofpresidents.org/content.asp?id=34和www.americasvoices.net。在这个案例中,一个美国组织(美国主要犹太组织总裁会议)中的关键官员在把(建立以色列美国之声的)倡议描述为以色列公共关系(hasbara)活动的组成部分。

〔22〕关于思想库不断增加的作用和活动,参见Donald E.Abelson, American Think-Tanks and Their Role in U.S.Foreign Policy (New York: St.Martin's Press,1996); Trudy Lieberman, Slanting the StoryThe Forces That Shape the News(New York: New Press, 2000); David M.Ricci, The Transformation of American PoliticsThe New Washington and the Rise of Think Tanks (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); James Allen Smith, The Idea BrokersThink Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991),以及Diane Stone, Capturing the Political ImaginationThink-Tanks and the Policy Process(Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1996)。

〔23〕Joel Beinin,“Money, Media and Policy Consensus: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy,” Middle East Report Online, January-February 1993, pp.10—15; Goldberg, Jewish Power, pp.221—222,以及Mark H.Milstein,“Washington Institute for Near East Policy: An AIPAC ‘Image Problem,’”Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (online), July 1991。

〔24〕引自Milstein,“Washington Institute”。

〔25〕Toward Peace in the Middle EastReport of a Study Group (Washington,DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1975).

〔26〕Andrew Ross Sorkin,“Schlepping to Moguldom,” New York Times,September 5, 2004.Andrew Ross Sorkin,“Schlepping to Moguldom,” New York Times, September 5, 2004.萨本也是希拉里·克林顿总统竞选的主要支持者。Jeffrey H.Birnbaum and Matthew Mosk,“Clinton Fundraising Goes Full Force,” Washington Post, February 7, 2007.

〔27〕莱弗里特从2003年5月至2006年6月任职于布鲁金斯协会萨本中东政策中心,一开始他在那里任客座研究员,后来任高级研究员。他与他的上司马丁·因迪克在美国的伊朗政策和叙利亚政策问题上存有明显的分歧。莱弗里特坚持认为,如果伊朗不放弃其核计划,那么对伊朗采取军事打击的威胁几乎没有什么意义;并且坚持认为,追求同德黑兰进行一项大交易则更有意义。因迪克则持相反的观点。莱弗里特也不同意因迪克的这一观点,即认为暗杀黎巴嫩总理拉菲克·哈里里为削弱叙利亚总统巴沙尔·艾尔-阿萨德提供了一个极好的机会。莱弗里特之所以被迫离开布鲁金斯协会,部分原因是他与因迪克之间的分歧,部分原因则是因为他批评萨本中东政策中心研究主任肯尼思·波拉克对伊拉克战争的鼓吹。参见2006年10月17日与本书两位作者的晤谈;2007年6月6日、6月12日与本书两位作者的通信。

〔28〕2005年度的“萨本论坛”是在以色列举行的,并且在一次会议中还出现了巴勒斯坦国总统马哈茂德·阿巴斯、财政部部长萨拉姆·法亚德(Salam Fayad)和民政部部长穆罕默德·达赫兰(Mohamed Dahlan)。

〔29〕所引用的福克斯曼的话参见David E.Sanger,“Iran's Leader Relishes 2nd Chance to Make Waves,” New York Times, September 21, 2006。也可参见“Ahmadinejad Talks to U.S.Think Tank,” Washington Post, September 21, 2006,以及Eli Lake,“N.Y.'s Jewish Leaders Reject Offer to Meet Iran's Leader,” New York Sun, September 18, 2006。

〔30〕James D.Besser,“Turning Up Heat in Campus Wars,” Jewish Week, July 25, 2003; Ronald S.Lauder and Jay Schottenstein,“Back to School for Israel Advocacy,” Forward, November 14, 2003,以及Rachel Pomerance,“Israel Forces Winning Campus Battle, Say Students Attending AIPAC Meeting,” JTA.org,December 31, 2002。

〔31〕Michal Lando,“Christians to Train in Israel Advocacy,” Jerusalem Post, May 14, 2007.

〔32〕Besser,“Turning Up Heat”; Pomerance,“Israel Forces Winning.” 2005年春,美国以色列公共事务委员会在其年度会议上接待了100位学生自治会(student government)主席——其中80位不是犹太人。Nathaniel Popper,“Pro-Israel Groups:Campuses Improving,” Forward, June 24, 2005.

〔33〕“Policy Conference Highlights,”登录www.aipac.org/2841.htm。

〔34〕Jonathan S.Kessler and Jeff Schwaber, The AIPAC College GuideExposing the Anti-Israel Campaign on Campus,为希勒尔基金会准备的特辑(Washington,DC: AIPAC, 1984),以及Kristine McNeil,“The War on Academic Freedom,”Nation, November 11, 2002。

〔35〕Michael Dobbs,“Middle East Studies Under Scrutiny in U.S.,”Washington Post, January 13, 2004; Michele Goldberg,“Osama University?”Salon.com, November 6, 2003; Kristine McNeil,“The War on Academic Freedom,”Nation, November 11, 2002,以及Zachary Lockman,“Behind the Battle over US Middle East Policy,” Middle East Report Online, January 2004。

〔36〕Tanya Schevitz,“‘Dossiers’Dropped from Web Blacklist; Mideast Center Says Denouncing Professors Was Counterproductive,” San Francisco Chronicle (online), October 3, 2002.

〔37〕1964年的《民权法案》(Civil Rights Act)第六款要求,所有种族(肤色和民族血统)的纳税人缴纳的公共资金,不能以任何方式用于鼓励、保护、资助或导致种族(肤色或民族血统)的歧视。——译者注

〔38〕“The International Studies in Higher Education Act(HR 3077),”文本登录www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=h108-3077。

〔39〕Stanley Kurtz,“Anti-Americanism in the Classroom,” National Review Online, May 16, 2002; Martin Kramer, Ivory Towers on SandThe Failure of Middle East Studies in America (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001).

〔40〕联名信的文本张贴在马丁·克雷默的网站,登录www.geocities.org/martinkramerorg/Documents/HR3077/jointletter.htm。

〔41〕Goldberg,“Osama University?”; Ron Kampeas,“Campus Oversight Passes Senate as Review Effort Scores a Victory,” JTA.org, November 22, 2005;Stanley Kurtz,“Reforming the Campus: Congress Targets Title VI,” National Review Online, October 14, 2003; McNeil,“War on Academic Freedom”; Ori Nir,“Groups Back Bill to Monitor Universities,” Forward, March 12, 2004; Sara Roy,“Short Cuts,” London Review of Books, April 1, 2004,以及Anders Strindberg,“The New Commissars,” American Conservative, February 2, 2004。

〔42〕众议院第609号决议(第109届国会),“College Access and Opportunity Act of 2006,”登录www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109—609。

〔43〕参见Martin Kramer,“Title VI Verdict,”登录http://sandbox.blogcity.com/title-vi-verdict.htm,以及Stanley Kurtz,“Title Bout: Bipartisan Hope for Middle East Studies Reform,” National Review Online, April 2, 2007。也可参见Committee to Review the Title VI and Fulbright-Hays International Education Programs,“International Education and Foreign Languages: Keys to Securing America's Future”(Washington, DC: National Research Council, 2007), p.3。

〔44〕引自Scott Jaschik,“New Approach to International Education,” Inside Higher Ed (online),登录www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/03/28/intl。也可参见Sierra Millman,“Education Department Should Have High-Ranking Official to Oversee Foreign Language Study,” Chronicle of Higher Education Daily Report,March 28, 2007。

〔45〕Draft legislation,“Title VI International Education Programs,” April 19, 2007.该立法草案将要求联邦资金申请者“对以下问题加以描述,即申请者将如何处理有关受到申请资助的活动是否反映了不同看法和许多不同观点的争议”。一项后续的条款则说:“如果关于受《民权法案》第六款资助活动的投诉,并没有在相关接受者申请概述的程序中加以解决,这类投诉应提交(教育)部并由部长审查。”

〔46〕130个犹太研究项目的数字来自Mitchell G.Bard,“Tenured or Tenuous:Defining the Role of Faculty in Supporting Israel on Campus,” 这是一份由以色列校园联盟和美国-以色列合作企业(American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise)两个组织于2004年5月11日出版的报告。也可参见Nacha Cattan,“NYU Center: New Addition to Growing Academic Field,” Forward, May 2, 2003; Samuel G.Freedman,“Separating the Political Myths from the Facts in Israel Studies,” New York Times, February 16, 2005; Jennifer Jacobson,“The Politics of Israel Studies,” Chronicle of Higher Education, June 24, 2005, pp.10—12; Michael C.Kotzin,“The Jewish Community and the Ivory Tower: An Urgent Need for Israel Studies,” Forward, January 30, 2004,以及Nathaniel Popper,“Israel Studies Gain on Campus as Disputes Grow,” Forward, March 25, 2005。

〔47〕引自Cattan,“NYU Center”。

〔48〕Shmuel Rosner,“Donor May Fund Georgetown Jewish Center to Give U.S.Leaders Another Viewpoint,” Ha'aretz, June 14, 2006; Shmuel Rosner,“Academic Lies About Israel,” Ha'aretz, June 14, 2006,以及Stephen Santulli,“Jewish Program May Get Major Gift,” Hoya (online), September 1, 2006。

〔49〕关于最初的投诉,参见Chicago Friends of Israel,“Jewish and Pro-Israel Students at the University of Chicago Subject to Intimidation and Hate,” July 24, 2002, on the Campus Watch website。也可参见Ron Grossman,“Mideast Conflict Boosts Tensions at U.S.Colleges,” Chicago Tribune, October 17, 2002;Dave Newbart,“Allegations of Anti-Semitism on Campus,” Chicago Sun-Times,November 4, 2002; Joshua Steinman,“University Professors Labeled Anti-Israeli by Campus Watch Site,” Chicago Maroon (online), October 29, 2002;“University Responds to Anti-Semitic Incidents,” University of Chicago Magazine, October 2002,以及Sean Wereley,“Students Debate Presence of Anti-Semitism on Campus,” Chicago Weekly News, October 17, 2002。

〔50〕Jonathan R.Cole,“The Patriot Act on Campus: Defending the University Post-9/11,” Boston Review, Summer 2003; Chanakya Sethi,“Khalidi Candidacy for New Chair Draws Fire,” Daily Princetonian (online), April 22, 2005;Chanakya Sethi,“Debate Grows over Khalidi Candidacy,” Daily Princetonian(online), April 28, 2005,以及“Scholarship, Not Politics, Is the Measure of a Professor,” Daily Princetonian editorial (online), April 27, 2005。

〔51〕Cole,“The Patriot Act on Campus.”

〔52〕Robert Gaines,“The Battle at Columbia University,” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (online), April 2005; Caroline Glick,“Our World:The Columbia Disaster,” Jerusalem Post, April 4, 2005; Joseph Massad,“Witch Hunt at Columbia: Targeting the University,” CounterPunch.org, June 3,2005; Nathaniel Popper,“Columbia Students Say Firestorm Blurs Campus Reality,”Forward, February 11, 2005; Scott Sherman,“The Mideast Comes to Columbia,”Nation, April 4, 2005,以及Chanan Weissman,“Film on ‘Bias’ at Columbia U.Sparks Fury Among Israeli Alumni,” Jerusalem Post, February 6, 2005.

〔53〕“Columbia University Ad Hoc Grievance Committee, Final Report, New York, 28 March 2005(excerpts),” Journal of Palestine Studies 34, no.4(Summer 2005): pp.90—100.

〔54〕Scott Jaschik,“Blackballed at Yale,” Inside Higher Ed (online),June 5, 2006; Liel Liebovitz,“Middle East Wars Flare Up at Yale,” Jewish Week, June 2, 2006; Steve Lipman,“Opening the Ivy Doors,” Jewish Week,December 22, 2006; Philip Weiss,“Burning Cole,” Nation, July 3, 2006;and the symposium“Posting Mortem,” Chronicle of Higher Education, July 28,2006.

〔55〕Paul Findley, They Dare to Speak OutPeople and InstitutionsConfront Israel's Lobby, 3rd ed.(Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 2003), pp.50—58,以及“Stanford Apologizes to Ex-Representative McCloskey,” Washington Post, July 28, 1983。(https://www.daowen.com)

〔56〕海军战争学院的教员彼得·多布罗斯基(Peter Dombrowski)于2006年6月13日向我们通报了此事,并且在2007年4月5日的一封电子邮件通信中对此加以确认。

〔57〕“UM Deserves to Hear Both Sides on Israel Lobby,” letter, Montana Kaimin, September 7, 2006; Trevor Kilgore,“Profs Off-Base in Labeling Lecturer as Anti-Semitic,” letter, Montana Kaimin, September 8, 2006;Brenna Moore,“U.S.Foreign Policy Mistakes, Consequences Discussed by International Relations Expert,” Montana Kaimin, September 12, 2006; Rob Chaney,“Professor Questions U.S.-Israeli Relationship,” Missoulian,September 12, 2006;“Anti-Semitic Lecturer Bad for UM,” letter, Montana Kaimin, September 13, 2006,以及“Presidential Lecturer Starts Debate, Not Hatred,” letter, Montana Kaimin, September 12, 2006。 10月,同一讲座系列中出现了约瑟夫·约菲(Joseph Joffe),他是众所周知的欧洲外交政策专家,并且对我们最初的那篇文章持严厉批评的态度。他出现在这个系列讲座上,并没有平息对邀请沃尔特持批评态度的那些人,这些批评者还在继续他们那最终并未成功地赶走该系列讲座协调员的活动。Hannah Heimbuch,“Lecture Series Not Skirting Foreign Policy,” Montana Kaimin,October 26, 2006.

〔58〕Ralph Blumenthal,“Cries to Halt Publication of Holocaust Book,” New York Times, January 10, 1998; Norman G.Finkelstein, Beyond ChutzpahOn the Misuse of Anti-Semitism and the Abuse of History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), pp.55—56.

〔59〕Chutzpah一词是希伯来语,有大胆、蛮横、肆无忌惮等含义。此处音义结合翻译为“虎刺怕”效果较好。——译者注

〔60〕Jon Weiner,“Giving Chutzpah New Meaning,” Nation, July 11, 2005,以及随后的通信,Ibid., August 29, 2005。也可参见“Dershowitz, Prof Spar over Plagiarism,” New York Times, July 14, 2005; Neve Gordon,“The Real Case for Israel,” In These Times (online), October 12, 2005; Jennifer Howard,“Calif.Press Will Publish Controversial Book on Israel,” Chronicle of Higher Education (online), July 22, 2005,以及Jon Wiener,“Chutzpah and Free Speech,” Los Angeles Times, July 11, 2005。

〔61〕Andy Humm,“Academic Freedom, Intimidation, and Mayoral Politics:The Case of Rashid Khalidi,” Gotham Gazette (online), April 7, 2005; Julia Levy, “Khalidi Is Tapped to Teach Teachers About Middle East,” New York Sun,February 15, 2005; Julia Levy,“Education Dept.Drops Columbia Prof.from Teaching Program for Teachers,” New York Sun, February 16, 2005,以及Alisa Solomon,“When Academic Freedom Is Kicked Out of Class,” Forward, March 4,2005。

〔62〕Yaniv Halili,“New Yorkers to Study About Israel,” Ynetnews.com,September 8, 2006;David Andreatta,“Schools Back Israeli Teacher Course,”New York Post (online), September 28, 2006.他们甚至能够向私立高中施压。2007年1月,来自关注此事的家长以及硅谷地区犹太人社会关系委员会(Jewish Community Relations Council of Silicon Valley)的抗议,导致斯坦福大学教授乔尔·贝宁(Joel Beinin)在圣何塞私立哈克学校(Harker School)的讲座被取消。虽然贝宁是犹太人,而且并不质疑以色列的生存权,但由于他也是一位以色列巴勒斯坦政策的批评者,因而对于他向一群高中学生发表演讲,显然是不可接受的。Joel Beinin,“Silencing Critics Not Way to Middle East Peace,” San Francisco Chronicle (online), February 4, 2007.

〔63〕Max Gross,“Israel Advocacy Coalition Targeting High Schools,”Forward, January 23, 2004; Rachel Pomerance,“With Israel Issue Hot on Campus,Groups Train High School Advocates,” JTA.org, January 22, 2004,以及“New Pro-Israel Campaign Targets High School Students,” JTA.org, June 2, 2004。

〔64〕Jonathan Kessler,“Pro-Israel Activism Makes Comeback on Campus,”Forward, December 26, 2003; Popper,“Pro-Israel Groups: Campuses Improving”;Barry Silverman and Randall Kaplan,“Pro-Israel College Activists Quietly Successful on Campus,” JTA.org, May 9, 2005,以及Chanan Tigay,“As Students Return to Campus, Activists Prepare a New Approach,” JTA.org, September 1,2005。然而,以色列游说集团对校园的影响是有限的。参见Joe Eskenazi,“Book:College Campuses Quiet, but Anti-Israel Feeling Is Growing,” JTA.org,November 29, 2005,以及Gary Rosenblatt,“U.S.Grad Students Seen Hostile to Israel,” Jewish Week, June 17, 2005。

〔65〕所引用的哈里斯和波兰总领事克尔兹斯托夫·卡斯普尔兹克(Krzystof Kasprzyk)的话,参见Michael Powell,“In N.Y., Sparks Fly over Israel Criticism,”Washington Post, October 9, 2006。也可参见J.J.Goldberg,“A ‘Lobby’ Prof Asks: Can We Talk?” Forward, October 13, 2006; Larry Cohler-Esses,“Off Limits? Talk by Israel Critic Canceled,” Jewish Week, October 6, 2006,以及Ira Stoll,“Poland Abruptly Cancels a Speech by Local Critic of the Jewish State,” New York Sun, October 4, 2006。公开信的副本可见“The Case of Tony Judt: An Open Letter to the ADL,” New York Review of Books, November 16,2006。关于反诽谤联盟的回应和原信两位主要作者的后续回应,参见“The ADL & Tony Judt:An Exchange,” New York Review of Books, November 30, 2006。

〔66〕Graham Bowley,“Lunch with the FT: Tony Judt,” Financial Times,March 16, 2007.

〔67〕引自“French Embassy Cancels N.Y.Book Launch over Author's Israel Views,” Ha'aretz, October 10, 2006。也引自 Ed Pilkington,“US Free Speech Row Grows as Author Says Jewish Complaints Stopped Party,” Guardian, October 11, 2006,以及Henry Porter,“The Enemies of Free Speech Are Everywhere,” Observer, October 15, 2006。卡利尔书中那一相关段落内容如下:“法国忘记了维希,澳大利亚人忘记了土著居民,英国人忘记了爱尔兰人,统一党党员忘记了北爱尔兰的天主教徒,美国忘记了智利、忘记了关塔那摩。所有人都忘记了东帝汶和卢旺达。当我写这本书的时候,人们不断问我,我如何能够忍受书写这样的邪恶之徒和如此可怕的事情。事实上,过去的恐怖吓不倒我。令我痛苦之极的……是与在法国那些无助的犹太人的恐惧靠得如此之近,是目睹以色列的犹太人正在施加给巴勒斯坦人民的东西。就像其他人一样,以色列的犹太人‘忘记了’巴勒斯坦人。每个人都忘记了;每个国家都忘记了。”Carmen Callil, Bad FaithA Forgotten History of FamilyFatherlandand Vichy France (New York:Random House, 2006), p.437.

〔68〕Jesse McKinley,“Play About Demonstrator's Death Is Delayed,” New York Times, February 28, 2006; Katharine Viner,“A Message Crushed Again,”Los Angeles Times, March 1, 2006.也可参见Rachel Irwin,“Censoring Rachel's Words?” Jerusalem Post, March 20, 2006; Edward Rothstein,“Too Hot to Handle, Too Hot to Not Handle,” New York Times, March 6, 2006,以及Philip Weiss,“Too Hot for New York,” Nation, April 3, 2006。

〔69〕Richard Ouzounian,“‘Corrie’ Cancelled in Canada,” Variety(online), December 22, 2006.

〔70〕Christine Dolen,“Theater Won't Stage Controversial Drama,” Miami Herald (online), April 3, 2007.多兰也报道说,该剧在西雅图的成功演出引发了三个犹太团体的抗议,这些团体向观看演出者散发传单。

〔71〕福克斯曼的话引自Jim McGee,“Jewish Group's Tactics Investigated,”Washington Post, October 19, 1993。关于反诽谤联盟的案子,参见Chip Berlet and Dennis King,“ADL-Gate,” Tikkun, July/August 1993; Jeffrey Blankfort, Anne Poirier, and Steve Zeltser,“The ADL Spy ing Case Is Over, but the Struggle Continues,” CounterPunch.org, February 25, 2002; Phil Bronstein,“Suspect in Cop Spy Case Tells His Story,” San Francisco Examiner, January 22, 1993;Lynne Duke,“Anti-Defamation League Sued: Rights Violations Alleged in Spying,”Washington Post, October 22, 1993; Bob Egelko,“Jewish Defense Group Settles S.F.Spying Suit,” San Francisco Chronicle (online), February 23, 2002;Robert I.Friedman,“The Enemy Within,” Village Voice, May 11, 1993;“Inquiry Is Dropped over Spy Charges,” New York Times, November 17, 1993,以及“The ADL Snoops,” CounterPunch.org, November 11, 1998。

〔72〕就像在本书的第四章中所讨论的那样,我们认为“犹太人游说集团”这一术语既是误导性的,又是不适当的,因为它意味着所有犹太人都支持以色列游说集团的立场,但却忽略了非犹太人的个人和团体也是这一松散联盟的组成部分。

〔73〕Mortimer B.Zuckerman,“A Shameful Contagion of Anti-Semitism in Europe,” U.S.News & World Report, October 7, 2002; Jeff Jacoby,“The Cancer of Anti-Semitism in Europe,” Boston Globe, March 21, 2004.

〔74〕引自Tony Judt,“Goodbye to All That?” Nation, January 3, 2005。

〔75〕Anti-Defamation League,“Attitudes Toward Jews, Israel and the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict in Ten European Countries,” April 2004; Pew Global Attitudes Project, A Year After Iraq WarMistrust of America in Europe Even HigherMuslim Anger Persists (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, March 16, 2004), pp.4—5, 26.关于反诽谤联盟的调查,参见“ADL Survey Finds Some Decrease in Anti-Semitic Attitudes in Ten European Countries,” ADL press release, April 26, 2004,以及Shlomo Shamir,“Poll Shows Decrease in Anti-Semitic Views in Europe,” Ha'aretz, April 27, 2004。这些研究结果其实对亲以色列的学者几乎没有影响,因为他们继续认为反犹太主义在欧洲是猖獗的。例如可参见Daniel J.Goldhagen,“Europe's Toothless Reply to Anti-Semitism:Conference Fails to Build Tools to Fight a Rising Sickness,” Los Angeles Times,April 30, 2004,以及Charles Krauthammer,“The Real Mideast ‘Poison,’”Washington Post, April 30, 2004。

〔76〕Martin Peretz,“Cambridge Diarist: Regrets,” New Republic, April 22,2002, p.50.

〔77〕本段落中的数据来自“Anti-Semitism in Europe: Is It Really Rising?”Economist, May 4, 2002.

〔78〕引自Marc Perelman,“Community Head: France No More Antisemitic Than U.S.,” Forward, August 1, 2003。也可参见Francois Bujon de l'Estang,“A Slander on France,” Washington Post, June 22, 2002,以及“French President Accuses Israel of Conducting Anti-French Campaign,” Ha'aretz, May 12, 2002。

〔79〕“French Police: Anti-Semitism in France Sharply Decreased in 2005,”Ha'aretz, January 19, 2006.

〔80〕“French Protest for Murdered Jew,” BBC News (online), February 26,2006; Michel Zlotowski,“Large Memorial Held for Parisian Jew,” Jerusalem Post, February 23, 2006.

〔81〕Avi Beker,“The Eternally Open Gate,” Ha'aretz, January 11, 2005;Josef Joffe,“A Boom, if Not a Renaissance, in Modern-Day Germany,” Forward,July 25, 2003; Nathaniel Popper,“Immigrant Policy Eyed as German Community Swells,” Forward, July 25, 2003,以及Eliahu Salpeter, “Jews from the CIS Prefer Germany to the Jewish State,” Ha'aretz, May 28, 2003。《泰晤士报》(伦敦)也报道说,在2005年春季,“估计有10万犹太人在过去几年中已返回俄罗斯,从而在一个具有悠久反犹主义历史的国家中引发了一场巨大的犹太生活复兴运动”。Jeremy Page,“Once Desperate to Leave, Now Jews Are Returning to Russia, Land of Opportunity,” Times (London), April 28, 2005.也可参见Lev Krichevsky,“Poll: Russians Don't Dislike Jews, and More Are Against Anti-Semitism,”JTA.org, February 2, 2006。

〔82〕以色列犹太人代理处教育科(Education Department of the Jewish Agency for Israel)主席曾这样说道:“目前的反犹主义暴力源于两个不同的根源:中东和西欧激进的伊斯兰分子,以及东欧和拉丁美洲的新纳粹青年因素。”Jonathan Schneider,“Anti-Semitism Still a World Problem,” Jerusalem Post, January 26, 2006.

〔83〕“Study: Anti-Semitic Attacks Hit Record Level in Britain in 2006,”Ha'aretz, February 1, 2007; Community Security Trust,“Antisemitic Incidents Report 2006,” 登录www.thecst.org.uk。

〔84〕具体来说,伦敦警方报告说,反犹主义的攻击行动在5年中下降了25%,而“在伦敦发生的对黑人、亚洲人和阿拉伯人的种族主义攻击事件则远远更高”。全球反犹主义论坛的数字显示,从2005年到2006年,反犹主义事件稍微有所下降(3%)。Jonny Paul,“Sharp Rise in U.K.anti-Semitism? Numbers Don't Add Up for Everyone,” JTA.org,February 22, 2007.

〔85〕关于这一争论的例子,参见Phyllis Chesler, The New Anti-SemitismThe Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,2003); Hillel Halkin,“The Return of Anti-Semitism: To Be Against Israel Is to Be Against the Jews,” Wall Street Journal, February 5, 2002; Barry Kosmin and Paul Iganski,“Judeophobia-Not Your Parents' Anti-Semitism,” Ha'aretz,June 3, 2003; Amnon Rubinstein,“Fighting the New Anti-Semitism,” Ha'aretz,December 2, 2003; Gabriel Schoenfeld, The Return of Anti-Semitism (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003); Natan Sharansky,“Anti-Semitism Is Our Problem,” Ha'aretz, August 10, 2003; Yair Sheleg,“A World Cleansed of the Jewish State,” Ha'aretz, April 18, 2002,以及Yair Sheleg,“Enemies, a Post-National Story,” Ha'aretz, March 8, 2003。关于对此观点的批评,参见Akiva Eldar,“Anti-Semitism Can Be Self-Serving,” Ha'aretz, May 3, 2002; Brian Klug,“The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism,” Nation, February 2, 2004; Ralph Nader,“Criticizing Israel Is Not Anti-Semitism,” CounterPunch.org, October 16/17, 2004; Reframing Anti-SemitismAlternative Jewish Perspectivesed.Henri Picciotto and Mitchell Plitnick (Oakland, CA: Jewish Voice for Peace,2004),以及Finkelstein, Beyond Chutzpah, chaps.1—3。

〔86〕Helen Nugent,“Chief Rabbi Flays Church over Vote on Israel Assets,”Times (London), February 17, 2006.也可参见Bill Bowder,“Sacks Seeks Talks after Synod Vote on Disinvestment,” Church Times (online), February 17,2006;“Bulldozer Motion ‘Based on Ignorance,’” Church Times (online),February 10, 2006; Ruth Gledhill,“Church Urged to Reconsider Investments with Israel,” Times (London), May 28, 2005,以及Irene Lancaster,“Anglicans Have Betrayed the Jews,” Moriel Ministries(UK) website, 登录www.moriel.org/articles/israel/ anglicans-have-betrayed-the-jews.htm。也可参见“U.K.Chief Rabbi Attacks Anglicans over Israel Divestment Vote,”Ha'aretz, February 17, 2006。

〔87〕英国教会只是批评以色列的政策而不是在从事反犹主义活动,这种情形清楚地反映在坎特伯雷大主教罗恩·威廉斯(Rowan Williams)博士2006年2月10日致大拉比乔纳森·萨克斯(Jonathan Sacks)的信中,以解释教会摆脱美国卡特彼勒公司的决定。“Archbishop: Synod Call Was Expression of Concern,” Church of England website,登录www.cofe.anglican.org/news/pr2006.html。

〔88〕Arnold Forster and Benjamin R.Epstein, The New Anti-Semitism (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1974).用他们的话来说:“新的反犹主义的核心”是“对犹太人民严重的忧惧基本上冷漠不顾,对处理反犹太人的行为软弱而缺乏兴趣,对以色列存在的必要性之于全世界犹太人的安全和生存普遍不能够理解或不愿意理解。”(p.324)

〔89〕按照珀尔马特夫妇的说法:“正是反犹主义的外柔内刚,为(里根)政府(在向沙特阿拉伯出售机载预警与控制系统交易中)的胜利提供了理由。”Nathan Perlmutter and Ruth Ann Perlmutter, The Real Anti-Semitism in America (New York: Arbor House,1982), p.236.

〔90〕用珀尔马特夫妇的话来说:“现在犹太人的利益更多地受到非犹主义政府政策——此类政策的支持者免于反犹主义的指控——的威胁,而不是他们所熟悉的祸患——残酷的反犹主义——的威胁”。这些政策包括“西方经济体对石油美元再循环的渴求”,新孤立主义和补偿性群体的权利(如赞助型行动),等等。在他们看来:“犹太人今天所面临的更大危险是来自那些虽然并非偏执、但却比长期而易于辨认的反犹主义祸患对我们造成更大危险的领域。由于不受挑战和阻止,因此这些在表面上对犹太人中立的问题,却能够伤害犹太人;而且这些需要加以抵制的问题,可能再次放任典型的反犹主义行为。”Real Anti-Semitism,9, pp.231—232.

〔91〕引自Hillel Halkin,“The Return of Anti-Semitism,”Commentary,February 2002, p.30。

〔92〕Natan Sharansky,“Anti-Semitism Is Our Problem,” Ha'aretz, August 10,2003.也可参见Zuckerman,“Shameful Contagion”。

〔93〕Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999); Jack Wertheimer,“Jewish Organizational Life,” in American Jewish Yearbook 1995(New York: American Jewish Committee, 1995), 70,以及Frank Rich,“The Booing of Wolfowitz,” New York Times, May 11, 2002。

〔94〕Leon Wieseltier,“Hitler Is Dead: The Case Against Jewish Ethnic Panic,” New Republic, May 27, 2002。(所引用的亨托夫和罗森鲍姆话均见此文)。前副国务卿斯图亚特·埃森斯塔特在2007年4月提出了类似的警告,他写道:“虽然反犹主义并未灭绝,但是大屠杀的严重性已嵌入世界舆论之中。普遍性的反犹主义态度的程度已急剧下降。天主教-犹太人之间的成功对话已经存在长达数十年之久了,伴之以梵蒂冈减少以宗教为基础的反犹主义的那些重要声明……大多数西欧国家有大屠杀纪念日,有几个国家还有犹太人大屠杀纪念馆……几乎每个主要欧洲国家都提供警察来保护犹太人的犹太教会堂和宗教学校。例如在法国,虽然来得迟了点,但是反犹主义的行动却遇到了强硬的回应。”Stuart Eizenstat,“The Dangers Are Great, but It Is Not 1938,” Forward,April 20, 2007.

〔95〕Yossi Beilin,“The Case for Carter,” Forward, January 16, 2007.

〔96〕使用这一术语的著名的以色列人包括前总检察长迈克尔·本·亚尔(Michael Ben Yair)、耶路撒冷副市长梅隆·本维尼斯提、和平活动家尤里·阿乌内里、前教育部长舒拉米特·阿龙尼(Shulamit Aloni)以及许多以色列和平团体。参见Joseph Lelyveld,“Jimmy Carter and Apartheid,” New York Review of Books, March 29, 2007。关于图图和卡斯利尔斯,参见Desmond Tutu and Ian Urbina, “Against Israeli Apartheid,” Nation, June 27, 2002,以及Jonny Paul,“South African Jewish Minister Sends Support to ‘Israel Apartheid Week’ Organizers,” Jerusalem Post,February 22, 2007。

〔97〕就像施穆尔·罗斯纳所指出的那样,虽然对卡特进行批评的人“几乎都是犹太人”,但是就像在上一段落中所引用的约西·贝林的话所清楚表明的那样,并非所有的犹太人都对这位前总统持批评态度。“The Carter Trap,” Ha'aretz, January 15, 2007.关于在非犹太人中间对卡特所作出的反差很大的反应,参见M.J.Rosenberg,“Israel's Increased Isolation,” Weekly Opinion Column, Issue #308, Israel Policy Forum,Washington, DC, January 19, 2007。

〔98〕所引用的福克斯曼的话参见James Besser,“Jewish Criticism of Carter Intensifies,” Jewish Week, December 15, 2006,以及Martin Peretz,“Carter's Legacy,” The SpineNew Republicweb-log), November 28, 2006。

〔99〕Deborah Lipstadt,“Jimmy Carter's Jewish Problem,” Washington Post,January 20, 2007.

〔100〕“Carter Defends Book on Israel Conflict,” Jerusalem Post, January 21, 2007.

〔101〕具体来说,克劳萨默称福山的观点为一种“使新保守主义犹太化的新奇方法”,并且说“他的观点并不是由帕特·布坎南和马来西亚的马哈蒂尔·穆罕默德(Mahathir Mohamad)等人所提出的原汁原味的(观点)。那种观点认为,美国新保守派(即犹太人)只是照以色列的命令行事,正在劫持美国外交政策为以色列和更大的犹太阴谋服务。福山的立场更加狡猾和含蓄”。尽管存在这样的区别,但是克劳萨默显然认为福山是一个“隐伏的”反犹主义者。关于他们的观点交锋,参见Francis Fukuyama,“The Neoconservative Moment,” National Interest 76(Summer 2004); Charles Krauthammer,“In Defense of Democratic Realism,” National Interest 77(Fall 2004); Francis Fukuyama,“Letter,” National Interest 78(Winter 2004/05);以及Charles Krauthammer,“Letter,” National Interest 79(Spring 2005)。

〔102〕Eliot Cohen,“Yes, It's Anti-Semitic,” Washington Post, April 5,2006; Eli Lake,“David Duke Claims to Be Vindicated by a Harvard Dean,” New York Sun, March 20, 2006.

〔103〕Anti-Defamation League,“Mearsheimer and Walt's Anti-Israel Screed: A Relentless Assault in Scholarly Guise,” ADL Analysis (online), March 24,2006; Josef Joffe,“Common Denominator,” New Republic Online, April 10,2006; Benny Morris,“And Now for Some Facts: The Ignorance at the Heart of an Innuendo,” New Republic, May 8, 2006; Michael B.Oren,“Quiet Riot: Tinfoil Hats in Harvard Yard,” New Republic, April 10, 2006,以及Martin Peretz,“Oil and Vinegar: Surveying the Israel Lobby,” New Republic, April 10, 2006。

〔104〕William Kristol,“Anti-Judaism,” Wall Street Journal, September 8,2006; Ruth R.Wisse,“Israel Lobby,” Wall Street Journal, March 22, 2006;Shmuel Rosner,“Is Carter an Anti-Semite?” Ha'aretz, December 21, 2006.

〔105〕所引用的内容来自Alvin H.Rosenfeld,“‘Progressive’ Jewish Thought and the New Anti-Semitism,” American Jewish Committee, December 2006, v, 9。也可参见Patricia Cohen,“Essay Linking Liberal Jews and Anti-Semitism Sparks a Furor,” New York Times, January 31, 2007; Larry Cohler-Esses, “Anger over Broadside Aimed at Jewish Leftists,” Jewish Week, February 9, 2007; Ben Harris,“Suddenly, Little-Noticed Essay Is Focus of Debate on Israel Criticism,” JTA.org, February 7, 2007; Alan Wolfe,“Free Speech, Israel,and Jewish Illiberalism,” Chronicle Review (of the Chronicle of Higher Education), November 17, 2006,以及Gaby Wood,“The New Jewish Question,”Observer, February 11, 2007。

〔106〕Michael Lerner,“There Is No New Anti-Semitism,” Baltimore Chronicle& Sentinel (online), February 2, 2007.

〔107〕Kristof,“Talking About Israel”; George Soros,“Of Israel, America,and AIPAC,” New York Review of Books, April 12, 2007;“Diaspora Blues,”Economisteditorial, January 13, 2007.

〔108〕Kristol,“Anti-Judaism.” 相反,克里斯托尔的解答是指责那些批评以色列的人——包括我们两位作者——“偏执”和“反犹太人”。