结论
与美国的巴勒斯坦政策、入侵伊拉克的悲剧性决定,以及同叙利亚的对抗性方法一样,以色列游说集团对美国伊朗政策的影响力,已经伤害到美国的国家利益。通过反对伊朗同美国的缓和,更不用说反对它们之间的合作,以色列游说集团已经加强了伊朗强硬派的地位,因此使得以色列的安全问题更加糟糕。但是以色列游说集团的消极影响力并不仅仅局限于此。就像下一章所显示的那样,以色列游说集团在2006年黎巴嫩战争期间的影响力,也对美国和以色列造成相当的伤害。
〔1〕关于伊朗的大规模杀伤性武器和弹道导弹能力的详情,登录www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Syria/index.html,核威胁倡议组织(Nuclear Threat Initiative)的“Iran Profile”; International Institute for Strategic Studies,Iran's Strategic Weapons Programmes: A Net Assessment (New York: Routledge,2005),以及Uzi Rubin, “The Global Reach of Iran's Ballistic Missiles,”Memorandum no.86(Tel Aviv: Institute for National Security Studies, November 2006)。
〔2〕“Iranian President at Tehran Conference: ‘Very Soon, This Stain of Disgrace [i.e., Israel] Will Be Purged from the Center of the Islamic World—and This Is Attainable’.” Middle East Media Research Institute, Special Dispatch Series no.1013, October 28, 2005.关于艾哈迈迪-内贾德演说译文更详细的讨论,参见第三章中的注释88。
〔3〕虽然一个国家的实际军事能力取决于它如何有效地把这些资产转化为装备精良的熟练军队,但是潜在军事实力最好的两个指标却是人口规模和财富。伊朗比它在波斯湾地区最接近的竞争对手伊拉克,实质上拥有更多的人口和财富。例如,1989年伊朗在人口上以大约3∶1的优势超过伊拉克(5450万人比1760万人);2006年则以大约2.4∶1的优势超过伊拉克(6500万人比2680万人)。U.S.Census Bureau, “International Data Base,”Updated August 24, 2006.以国内生产总值作为财富的一个衡量指标,伊朗在1985年以4∶1的优势超过伊拉克(1798亿美元比442亿美元);2000年以3.9∶1的优势超过伊拉克(1010亿美元比259亿美元)。World Bank, “Country at a Glance”(Iran and Iraq), August 13, 2006;以及 World Bank Group, “World Development Indicators Database,” Iran Data Profile and Iraq Data Profile, April 2006。
〔4〕这是阿莉莎·J.鲁宾(Alissa J.Rubin)于2006年12月10日在《洛杉矶时报》上发表的一篇文章的标题。也可参见Geoffrey Kemp, “Iran and Iraq: The Shia Connection, Soft Power, and the Nuclear Factor,” Special Report 156(Washington, DC: U.S.Institute of Peace, November 2005); “Iran Grows Strong, the World Yawns,” Ha'aretzeditorial, December 13, 2006; Liz Sly,“Iranian Influence Soaring in Iraq,” Chicago Tribune , March 8, 2007; Megan K.Stack and Borzou Daragahi, “Iran Was on Edge; Now It's on Top,” Los Angeles Times , February 18, 2006,以及 Edward Wong, “Iran Is in Strong Position to Steer Iraq's Political Future,” New York Times , July 3, 2004。
〔5〕引自Trita Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations 1970—2001: Ideological Calculus or Strategic Rivalry?”(PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University, April 2006), p.413,以及pp.159—162, 262—263, 275—276, 300—301, 392—393,406—411。也可参见Trita Parsi, “Israel and the Origins of Iran's Arab Option:Dissection of a Strategy Misunderstood,” Middle East Journal 60, no.3(Summer 2006),以及Trita Parsi, “The Geo-Strategic Roots of the Israeli-Iranian Enmity,” Heartland-Eurasian Review of Geopolitics 4(Summer 2005)。
〔6〕Bernard Lewis, “August 22: Does Iran Have Something in Store?” Wall Street Journal , August 8, 2006.
〔7〕关于威慑对反对核伊朗所起作用的仔细而令人信服的分析,参见Barry R.Posen,“A Nuclear Armed Iran: A Difficult but Not Impossible Policy Problem”(Washington, DC: Century Foundation, 2006); Barry R.Posen, “We Can Live with a Nuclear Iran,” New York Times , February 27, 2006。法国总统雅克·希拉克虽然在2007年1月提出这一观点,但是却不得不很快收回他的言论,因为在西方,如果说能够对核伊朗进行威慑的话,那么在政治上是不正确的。参见Elaine Sciolino and Katrin Bennhold, “Chirac Strays from Assailing a Nuclear Iran,” New York Times ,February 1, 2007。
〔8〕Ray Takeyh, “Iran's Nuclear Calculations,” World Policy Journal 20,no.2(Summer 2003).
〔9〕毕竟,这是伊拉克1981年在以色列人消除其初期核能力后所做的事情。参见Dan Reiter, “Preventive Attacks Against Nuclear Programs and the ‘Success’ at Osiraq,” Nonproliferation Review 12, no.2( July 2005)。
〔10〕Zbigniew Brzezinski, “Do Not Attack Iran,” International Herald Tribune , April 26, 2006; James Fallows, “Will Iran Be Next?” Atlantic ,December 2004,以及 Michael J.Mazarr, “Strike Out: Attacking Iran Is a Bad Idea,” New Republic , August 15, 2005。
〔11〕Michael Smith and Sarah Baxter, “US Generals ‘Will Quit’ if Bush Orders Iran Attack,” Sunday Times(London), February 25, 2007.
〔12〕Parsi, “Israel-Iranian Relations,” pp.285—297, 354—361, 400—401;Gary Sick, “The Clouded Mirror: The United States and Iran, 1979—1999,” in ed.John L.Esposito and R.K.Ramazani, Iran at the Crossroads (New York:Palgrave, 2001), p.204.
〔13〕David Hoffman, “Israel Seeking to Convince U.S.That West Is Threatened by Iran,” Washington Post , March 13, 1993.
〔14〕Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.402.关于以色列对双重遏制形成的影响力的详细说明,参见Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” pp.297—299,以及Kenneth M.Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict Between Iran and America(New York: Random House, 2004), pp.261—265。
〔15〕Pollack, Persian Puzzle, p.269.
〔16〕关于双重遏制的官方观点,参见Martin Indyk, “The Clinton Administration's Approach to the Middle East,”向索里夫研讨会发表的演讲,华盛顿近东政策研究所,1993年5月18日。也可参见Sick, “Clouded Mirror,” pp.198—199,209n13。
〔17〕关于拉夫桑贾尼同美国进行接触的努力,参见Ali M.Ansari, Confronting Iran:The Failure of American Foreign Policy and the Next Great Crisis in the Middle East (New York: Perseus Books, 2006), pp.115—146; Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” pp.257—266; Pollack, Persian Puzzle , chaps.9—10,以及R.K.Ramazani, “Reflections on Iran's Foreign Policy: Defining the ‘National Interests,’” in Esposito and Ramazani, Iran at the Crossroads , pp.217—222。
〔18〕Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” pp.298—299.对双重遏制的有益批评包括F.Gregory Gause III, “The Illogic of Dual Containment,” Foreign Affairs 73, no.2(March/April 1994),以及 Barbara Conry, “America's Misguided Policy of Dual Containment in the Persian Gulf,” Foreign Policy Briefing no.33(Washington, DC: Cato Institute, November 10, 1994)。
〔19〕Zbigniew Brzezinski and Brent Scowcroft, Differentiated Containment:U.S.Policy Toward Iran and Iraq, report of an Independent Study Group on Gulf Stability and Security (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997),pp.5—32,以及Gary Sick, “Rethinking Dual Containment,” Survival 40, no.1(Spring 1998)。
〔20〕Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” pp.304—305; Pollack, Persian Puzzle , pp.269—270.
〔21〕Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.305.
〔22〕所引用的波拉克的话见Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.308。据报道,波拉克曾补充说,克林顿政府“只是通过德黑兰对待以巴冲突态度的棱镜来看待伊朗的”。引自Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.309。
〔23〕AIPAC, “Comprehensive U.S.Sanctions Against Iran: A Plan for Action,”Washington, DC, April 2, 1995.
〔24〕Pollack, Persian Puzzle , pp.270—271.
〔25〕以下对美国大陆石油公司这一案例和克林顿政府对伊朗实施各种制裁的讨论,基于Sasan Fayazmanesh, “The Politics of the U.S.Economic Sanctions Against Iran,”Review of Radical Political Economics 35, no.3(Summer 2003); Herman Franssen and Elaine Morton, “A Review of US Unilateral Sanctions Against Iran,” Middle East Economic Survey 45, no.34(August 26, 2002); Dilip Hiro, Neighbors Not Friends: Iraq and Iran After the Gulf Wars (New York: Routledge, 2001),chap.9; Kenneth Katzman, “The Iran-Libya Sanctions Act(ILSA),” CRS Report for Congress , Congressional Research Service, October 11, 2006; Laurie Lande,“Second Thoughts,” International Economy 11, no.3(May/June 1997); Pollack,Persian Puzzle , chaps.9—10,以及Sick, “Clouded Mirror,” pp.198—207。
〔26〕“Remarks at the World Jewish Congress Dinner in New York City—President Bill Clinton Speech—Transcript,” April 30, 1995,登录www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2889/is_n18_ v31/ai_17157196。也可参见 Agis Salpukas, “Conoco's Deal in Iran Faces Board Hurdle,” New York Times , March 14, 1995,以及 Daniel Southerland and Ann Devroy, “Clinton Bars U.S.Oil Pacts with Iran,” Washington Post , March 15, 1995。
〔27〕Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.310.
〔28〕白宫新闻秘书办公室行政命令12959号,1995年5月8日。
〔29〕Todd Purdum, “Clinton to Order a Trade Embargo Against Tehran,”New York Times , May 1, 1995; “Remarks at the World Jewish Congress.”
〔30〕Pollack, Persian Puzzle , p.273.
〔31〕Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” pp.308, 311, 329—330.
〔32〕A.M.Rosenthal, “Plugging the Leak,” New York Times , March 14,1995.
〔33〕Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.312.根据另外一个消息来源的说法,美国以色列公共事务委员会的一名官员声称,国会“一句一句地与我们共同”起草这项立法。Franssen and Morton, “Review of US Unilateral Sanctions.”也可参见 George Moffett, “Push to Widen Libya Sanctions Riles US Allies,” Christian Science Monitor , January 24, 1996。
〔34〕Pollack, Persian Puzzle , p.287.
〔35〕引自Brzezinski and Scowcroft, Differentiated Containment , p.6.
〔36〕James Schlesinger, “Fragmentation and Hubris: A Shaky Basis for American Leadership,” National Interest 49(Fall 1997):5.
〔37〕Fayazmanesh, “Politics of the U.S.Economic Sanctions,” pp.231—235.
〔38〕Reuters, “Call for ‘Détente’ as Tehran Swears in a Moderate President,” Australian , August 5, 1997; Douglas Jehl, “Iranian President Calls for Opening Dialogue with U.S.,” New York Times , December 15, 1997,以及 “Transcript of Interview with Iranian President Mohammad Khatami,” CNN.com ,January 7, 1998.
〔39〕“Interview with Khatami”,以及 Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,”pp.330—336.
〔40〕关于克林顿政府同以色列的协商,参见Pollack, Persian Puzzle , p.319。关于克林顿政府为回应哈塔米建议而采取的步骤更全面的讨论,参见Hiro, Neighbors,chap.10; Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” pp.331—345; Pollack, Persian Puzzle , pp.319—342,以及Sick, “Clouded Mirror,” pp.200—206。
〔41〕引自Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.329。
〔42〕Ansari, Confronting Iran , chap.5; Hiro, Neighbors , pp.235—240;Pollack, Persian Puzzle , pp.325—342,以及Ray Takeyh, Hidden Iran: Paradox and Power in the Islamic Republic (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), pp.44—54,110—116。
〔43〕Yerah Tal, “U.S., Iran in Secret Talks,” Ha'aretz , December 15,1997.
〔44〕Sick, “Clouded Mirror,” 210n32.
〔45〕Eli Lake, “Israel, U.S.Jewish Lobby Disagree on Iran Sanctions,”United Press International, September 23, 2000.
〔46〕引自Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.298。
〔47〕引自Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.403。20世纪90年代初,斯奈在提出理由说伊朗是以色列的致命威胁方面起到了主要的作用。参见Parsi, “Israeli-Iranian Relations,” p.286。
〔48〕引自Alan Sipress, “Israel Emphasizes Iranian Threat,” Washington Post , February 7, 2002。这篇写于沙龙抵达华盛顿时的文章清楚表明,耶路撒冷正以双倍的努力来警告布什政府说,伊朗所构成的威胁比萨达姆·侯赛因的伊拉克政权更大。也可参见Seymour M.Hersh, “The Iran Game,” New Yorker , December 3, 2001;Peter Hirschberg, “Background: Peres Raises Iranian Threat,” Ha'aretz ,February 5, 2002; David Hirst, “Israel Thrusts Iran in Line of US Fire,”Guardian , February 2, 2002; “Israel Once Again Sees Iran as a Cause for Concern,” Ha'aretz , May 7, 2001; Dana Priest, “Iran's Emerging Nuclear Plant Poses Test for U.S.,” Washington Post , July 29, 2002,以及 Ze'ev Schiff, “Iran: Clear and Present Danger,” Ha'aretz , May 31, 2002。
〔49〕Stephen Farrell, Robert Thomson, and Danielle Haas, “Attack Iran the Day Iraq War Ends, Demands Israel,” Times (London), November 5, 2002;Stephen Farrell and Robert Thomson, “The Times Interview with Ariel Sharon,”ibid.
〔50〕引自“Ambassador to U.S.Calls for ‘Regime Change’ in Iran, Syria,”Ha'aretz , April 28, 2003。
〔51〕Steven R.Weisman, “New U.S.Concerns on Iran's Pursuit of Nuclear Arms,” New York Times , May 8, 2003.
〔52〕Shimon Peres, “We Must Unite to Prevent an Ayatollah Nuke,” Wall Street Journal , June 25, 2003.
〔53〕Jim Lobe, “US Neo-Cons Move Quickly on Iran,” Inter Press Service,May 27, 2003.
〔54〕Marc Perelman, “Pentagon Team on Iran Comes Under Fire,” Forward ,June 6, 2003.也可参见 Marc Perelman, “White House Is Aiming to Raise Iranian Nukes at U.N.Security Council,” Forward , May 9, 2003,以及Marc Perelman,“New Front Sets Sights on Toppling Iran Regime,” Forward , May 16, 2003。
〔55〕William Kristol, “The End of the Beginning,” Weekly Standard , May 12, 2003.
〔56〕Michael Ledeen, “The Others,” National Review Online , April 4,2003.雷丁还在2003年4月中旬写道:“只要在叙利亚和伊朗的政权继续掌权,那么赢得反恐战争就是不可能的。”他接着说:“好消息是,这两个政权都经不起政治上的打击。”引自Ronald Brownstein, “Those Who Sought War Are Now Pushing Peace,” Los Angeles Times , April 17, 2003。也可参见 Alex Koppelman, “Iranian Regime Change: ‘Faster, Please!’” Salon.com , January 15, 2007。
〔57〕Daniel Pipes and Patrick Clawson, “Turn Up the Pressure on Iran,”Jerusalem Post , May 21, 2003; Lawrence Kaplan, “Iranamok,” New Republic , June 9, 2003.(https://www.daowen.com)
〔58〕为这次会议——会议标题为“The Future of Iran: Mullahcracy, Democracy,and the War on Terror”——做广告的副本,可以登录www.aei.org/events/event ID.300/event_detail.asp。可参见Jordan Green, “Neocons Dream of Lebanon,”ZNet (online), July 23, 2003,以及 Lobe, “Neo-Cons Move Quickly”。
〔59〕Connie Bruck, “Exiles: How Iran's Expatriates Are Gaming the Nuclear Threat,” New Yorker , March 6, 2006; Lobe, “Neo-Cons Move Quickly”; Ron Perelman, “New Front Sets Sights on Toppling Iran Regime,” Forward , May 17,2003,以及“Shah of Iran's Heir Plans Overthrow of Regime,” Human Events(online), May 1, 2006。
〔60〕所有的信息来自“Senator Brownback Announces Iran Democracy Act with Iranian Exiles”,伊朗裔美国人全国理事会(National Iranian American Council)新闻稿,2003年5月20日,以及“Iran Democracy Act Passed, but No Money to Opposition and Satellite TV's”,伊朗裔美国人全国理事会新闻稿,2003年7月24日。
〔61〕Lobe, “Neo-Cons Move Quickly.”
〔62〕Michael Ledeen, “The Iranian Hand,” Wall Street Journal , April 16,2004.
〔63〕“President Discusses War on Terror and Operation Iraqi Freedom,” 在俄亥俄州克利夫兰的讲话(白宫新闻秘书办公室, 2006年3月20日)。
〔64〕引自Ori Nir, “Groups to Bush: Drop Iran-Israel Linkage,” Forward ,May 12, 2006。
〔65〕Associated Press, “John McCain Jokes About Bombing Iran at U.S.Campaign Stop,” International Herald Tribune , April 19, 2007.
〔66〕“The Road to the White House: Israel-U.S.Ties,” Jerusalem Post ,May 24, 2007.
〔67〕Nir, “Groups to Bush.” 也可参见 James D.Besser and Larry Cohler-Esses,“Iran-Israel Linkage by Bush Seen as Threat,” Jewish Week , April 21, 2006;James D.Besser, “JCPA Delegates Spurn Israel Demands,” Jewish Week , March 2,2007; “Groups Fear Public Backlash over Iran,” Forward , February 2, 2007;Ron Kampeas, “As Jewish Groups Huddle, Quagmire in Iraq Undermines Resolve on Iran,” JTA.org , February 28, 2007,以及 Jim Lobe, “Jewish Community Worried About Iran Backlash,” Inter Press Service, May 10, 2006。
〔68〕引自Besser and Cohler-Esses, “Iran-Israel Linkage”。
〔69〕引自Ori Nir, “Bush Overture to Iran Splits Israel, Neocons,”Forward , June 9, 2006。
〔70〕Gareth Porter, “Strategy Paper Reveals Bush Won't Attack Iran,”Inter Press Service, June 20, 2006.
〔71〕James Bamford, “Iran: The Next War,” Rolling Stone , July 24,2006; Seymour M.Hersh, “The Coming Wars,” New Yorker , January 24/31, 2005;Seymour M.Hersh, “The Iran Plans,” New Yorker , April 17, 2006; Seymour M.Hersh, “Last Stand,” New Yorker , July 10, 2006; Seymour M.Hersh, “The Redirection,” New Yorker , March 5, 2007,以及“Iran: The Next Strategic Target,” 西摩·赫什采访Amy Goodman of Democracy Now! AlterNet.org , January 19, 2005。也可参见Peter Baker, Dafna Linzer, and Thomas E.Ricks, “U.S.Is Studying Military Strike Options on Iran,” Washington Post , April 9, 2006;Perelman, “Pentagon Team on Iran”,以及 Craig Unger, “From the Wonderful Folks Who Brought You Iraq,” Vanity Fair (online), March 2007。本段落中所有引用的内容均来自Hersh, “Coming Wars”。
〔72〕本段落中的信息取自Helene Cooper and Mark Mazzetti, “To Counter Iran's Role in Iraq, Bush Moves Beyond Diplomacy,” New York Times , January 11,2007; Tony Karon, “The Problem with Confronting Iran,” Time , January 16,2007; Eli Lake, “GIs Raid Iranian Building in Irbil,” New York Sun ,January 12, 2007; David E.Sanger, “Opening a New Front in the War, against Iranians in Iraq,” New York Times , January 15, 2007; David E.Sanger and Michael R.Gordon, “Rice Says Bush Authorized Iranians' Arrest in Iraq,” New York Times , January 13, 2007,以及Trita Parsi, “Bush's Iraq Plan: Goading Iran into War,” Inter Press Service, January 17, 2007。
〔73〕Helene Cooper, “U.S.Not Pushing for Attack on Iran, Rice Says,” New York Times , June 1, 2007.也可参见Arnaud de Borchgrave, “Guns of August?”United Press International, June 4, 2007; Steven C.Clemons, “Cheney Attempting to Constrain Bush's Choices on Iran Conflict: Staff Engaged in Insubordination Against President Bush,” Washington Note weblog , May 24,2007,登录www.thewashingtonnote.com/archives/002145.php; Michael Hirsh and Mark Hosenball, “Cheney vs.Rice: A Foreign-Policy Showdown,” MSNBC.com , June 11,2007,以及 Glenn Kessler, “Cheney Backs Diplomacy on Iran Program, Rice Affirms,” Washington Post , June 2, 2007。
〔74〕所引用的这些内容来自2003年10月21日的《协议声明》(Agreed Statement),副本参见国际战略研究所的Iran's Strategic Weapons Programmes , p.19。伊朗和欧盟三国之间谈判的详情参见Ibid., chap.1; International Institute for Strategic Studies, Strategic Survey, 2004/5(New York: Routledge, May 2005), pp.196—200,以及International Institute for Strategic Studies, Strategic Survey, 2006(New York: Routledge, 2006), pp.210—222。
〔75〕Kaveh L.Afrasiabi, “The Myth of the EU Olive Branch,” Asia Times Online , August 13, 2005; Ansari, Confronting Iran , chap.7; British American Security Information Council, “EU3 Negotiations with the Islamic Republic of Iran: Not Out of the Woods Yet and Time Is Short, Very Short,”BASIC Notes: Occasional Paper on International Security Policy, July 2005,以及Hersh, “Last Stand”。
〔76〕Elissa Gootman, “Security Council Approves Sanctions Against Iran over Nuclear Program,” New York Times , December 24, 2006; Colum Lynch,“Sanctions on Iran Approved by U.N.,” Washington Post , December 24, 2006.也可参见 Nazila Fathi, “Iran Is Defiant, Vowing to U.N.It Will Continue Nuclear Efforts,” New York Times , December 25, 2006; Ron Kampeas, “The Iran Sanctions Package: Some Assembly Required, Teeth Not Included,” JTA.org ,December 25, 2006; Nasser Karimi, “Iran Rebuffs U.N., Vows to Speed Up Uranium Enrichment,” Washington Post , December 25, 2006,以及Neil King,“U.S.Bid to Limit Iran Gets Wary Response,” Wall Street Journal , December 29,2006。
〔77〕Daniel Bilefsky, “Europe Approves More Sanctions Against Iran,” New York Times , April 24, 2007; Daniel Dombey and Gareth Smyth, “New EU Sanctions Raise Pressure on Iran,” Financial Times , April 23, 2007; Warren Hoge, “U.N.Council Gets New Draft Decree on Iran Nuclear Sanctions,” New York Times , March 16, 2007; Colum Lynch, “U.N.Backs Broader Sanctions on Tehran,” Washington Post , March 26, 2007; Colum Lynch, “U.S., Allies Agree to Drop Proposed Iran Travel Ban,” Washington Post , March 10, 2007,以及Thom Shanker, “Security Council Votes to Tighten Iran Sanctions,” New York Times , March 25, 2007。
〔78〕Hersh, “The Redirection.”
〔79〕Nathan Guttman, “Activists Set to Push New Sanctions against Iran,”Forward , March 9, 2007.也可参见 Eli Lake, “AIPAC Will Press for Hard Line on Iran Regime,” New York Sun , March 7, 2007; Ian Swanson, “Chairmen Try to Tighten Screws on Iran,” The Hill (online), March 14, 2007,以及Steven R.Weisman, “U.S.Tightens Financial Squeeze on Iran,” International Herald Tribune , March 20, 2007。
〔80〕Richard Beeston and James Bone, “Hostage Fears over Troops Seized by Iran,” Times (London), March 24, 2007; Sarah Lyall, “Iran Seizes 15 Britons on Patrol in Persian Gulf,” New York Times , March 24, 2007; Vali Nasr and Ray Takeyh, “What We Can Learn from Britain About Iran,” New York Times , April 5, 2007,以及Kevin Sullivan, “15 Britons Taken to Tehran as Iran Dispute Intensifies,” Washington Post , March 25, 2007。
〔81〕Guttman, “Activists Set to Push”; Lake, “AIPAC Will Press”,以及Weisman, “U.S.Tightens Financial Squeeze”。关于欧洲不愿意减少同伊朗之间的交易,参见Steven R.Weisman, “Europe Resists U.S.Push to Curb Iran Ties,” New York Times , January 30, 2007。
〔82〕本段落中所有引用的内容均来自Hassan M.Fattah, “Saudi King Condemns U.S.Occupation of Iraq,” New York Times , March 28, 2007。也可参见William J.Broad and David E.Sanger, “With Eye on Iran, Rivals Also Want Nuclear Power,” New York Times , April 15, 2007; Rachel Bronson, “Good Neighbors:What Saudi Arabia Wants,” New Republic Online , April 3, 2007; Helene Cooper,“U.S.Feels Sting of Winning Saudi Help with Other Arabs,” New York Times ,March 30, 2007; Helene Cooper and Jim Rutenberg, “A Saudi Prince Tied to Bush Is Sounding Off-Key,” New York Times , April 29, 2007; Hassan M.Fattah,“Bickering Saudis Struggle for an Answer to Iran's Rising Influence in Middle East,” New York Times , December 22, 2006,以及 Jonathan Steele, “As US Power Fades, It Can't Find Friends to Take on Iran,” Guardian , February 2,2007。
〔83〕“Israeli PM Olmert Addresses Congress,” Washington Post , May 24,2006.奥尔默特走访了白宫,并且对布什总统表明了他对伊朗的态度。参见“President Bush and Prime Minister Ehud Olmert of Israel Participate in Joint Press Availability,” 白宫新闻秘书办公室,2006年5月23日。 以色列学者本尼·莫里斯也提出了一个具有启示性的观点,即如果伊朗获得了核武器,以色列会怎么样。参见Benny Morris, “Essay: This Holocaust Will Be Different,” Jerusalem Post , January 18, 2007,以及Benny Morris, “The Second Holocaust Is Looming,”israelinsider .com , January 15, 2007。
〔84〕Lally Weymouth, “Israel's P.M.on Iran, Lebanon, Palestinian State,”Newsweekinterview, MSNBC.com , November 11, 2006.也可参见Uzi Benziman,“Trigger-Happy(On the Button),” Ha'aretz , December 17, 2006; “Iran Complains to UN Security Council over Sneh Comments,” Ha'aretz , November 11,2006,以及 Ronny Sofer, “IDF: Only US Operation Can Stop Iran,”Ynetnews.com , October 12, 2006。
〔85〕引自Gil Yaron, “Missile Raid Would Hit Iran Nuclear Plants—Olmert,”Ynetnews.com , April 28, 2007。
〔86〕Oded Tira, “What to Do with Iran?” Ynetnews.com , December 30,2006.
〔87〕所引用的沙龙的话来自Uzi Mahnaimi and Sarah Baxter, “Israel Readies Forces for Strikes on Nuclear Iran,” Sunday Times (London), December 11,2005。更新的报道(以及以色列的否认)来自Uzi Mahnaimi and Sarah Baxter,“Revealed: Israel Plans Nuclear Strike on Iran,” Sunday Times , January 7,2007,以及Uzi Mahnaimi and Sarah Baxter, “Israel Denies Planning Iran Nuke Attack,” Associated Press, January 7, 2007。也可参见Richard Boudreaux,“Israel Sounds Alarm on Iran's Nuclear Efforts,” Los Angeles Times , February 7, 2007,以及 Ilene Prusher, “Israel Buzzes over Notion of Attacking Iran,”Christian Science Monitor , January 16, 2007。
〔88〕“‘Israel May Have to Act Alone,’” 德国《明镜周刊》对阿维格多·利伯曼的采访,Spiegel Online , February 12, 2007。
〔89〕关于这一事件卷帙浩繁的文献的样本,参见Stewart Ain, “Israel Urging U.S.to Stop Iran Nukes,” Jewish Week , October 7, 2005; Martin S.Indyk,“Iran's Bluster Isn't a Bluff,” Los Angeles Times , November 1, 2005; Ron Kampeas, “With Time Short on Iran Nukes, AIPAC Criticizes Bush Approach,”JTA.org , December 2, 2005; Yossi Klein Halevi and Michael B.Oren, “Israel's Worst Nightmare: Contra Iran,” New Republic , February 5, 2007; Frederick Kempe, “Elie Wiesel Sounds the Alarm Regarding Iran,” Wall Street Journal,June 20, 2006; Dafna Linzer, “Pro-Israel Group Criticizes White House Policy on Iran,” Washington Post , December 25, 2005; Ori Nir, “Israeli Aides Warn U.S.Not to Drop Ball on Iran,” Forward , December 9, 2005; Ori Nir,“Jewish Groups Press for Iran Sanctions,” Forward , September 23, 2005; Ori Nir, “Groups Push for anctions, Fear U.S.Will Falter on Iran,” Forward ,September 1, 2006; Marc Perelman, “Groups Head to Emirates, as Worries Grow over Iran,” Forward , January 19, 2007,以及Brad Sherman, “The Unmet Threat of a Nuclear Iran,” Forward , October 27, 2006。
〔90〕Joshua Muravchik, “Operation Comeback,” Foreign Policy 157(November/December 2006):68.
〔91〕引自Yossi Melman, “To Attack or Not to Attack?” Ha'aretz , January 24, 2007。
〔92〕Shmuel Rosner, “AIPAC Conference Focuses on Hamas and Iran,”Ha'aretz , March 7, 2006; Guttman, “Activists Set to Push.” Also see“Iran's Pursuit of Nuclear Weapons,”登录www.aipac.org/Publications/AIPACAnalyses-IssueBriefs/Irans_Pursuit_of_Nuclear_Weapons(1).pdf。
〔93〕引自James D.Besser, “Hardline Pastor Gets Prime AIPAC Spot,” Jewish Week , March 9, 2007。
〔94〕引自“Christians for Israel,” Jerusalem Posteditorial, March 14,2007。
〔95〕Maggie Haberman, “Israel Fans Groan over Hill Speech,” New York Post(online), February 2, 2007.
〔96〕Jonathan Allen, “Iran Language Draws Opposition as Democrats Near Agreement on Supplemental,” CQ Today , March 8, 2007; “Dems Abandon War Authority Provision,” Associated Press, March 13, 2007; Eli Lake,“Democrats Retreat on War Funds,” New York Sun , March 14, 2007; “Engel's Finest Hour,” New York Suneditorial, March 14, 2007,以及John Walsh, “Why Is the Peace Movement Silent About AIPAC?” CounterPunch.org , April 17, 2007。
〔97〕所引用的卡普阿诺的话参见Walsh, “Peace Movement Silent,”该文也讨论了库钦奇的回应。
〔98〕Leon Hadar, “Osirak Redux?” American Conservative , January 15,2007; Gideon Rachman, “Talk of Another Preventive War in the Middle East Is Folly,” Financial Times , November 21, 2006,以及Scott Ritter, Target Iran:The Truth About the White House's Plans for Regime Change (New York: Nation Books, 2006), pp.203—206。
〔99〕引自Jim Lobe, “Pressure Grows on Bush to Engage Iran Directly,”Antiwar.com , May 26, 2006。
〔100〕调查由巴利安大学(Bar-Ilan University)以及反诽谤联盟进行;该调查发现,“71%的以色列人相信,如果制止伊朗核计划的外交努力失败,美国应该对伊朗发动军事攻击”。参见Aluf Benn, “Poll: 71% of Israelis Want U.S.to Strike Iran if Talks Fail,” Ha'aretz , May 18, 2007。
〔101〕所引用的克拉克的原话参见“The Huffington Post” on January 4, 2007,登录www.huffingtonpost.com/arianna-huffington/dc-notes-wes-clark-is-_b_37837.html。所引用的伊格莱西亚斯的话来自Matthew Yglesias, “Smears for Fears,” American Prospect (online), January 23, 2007。也可参见James D.Besser, “Gen.Clark's Controversy,” Jewish Week , January 12, 2007; Nathan Guttman, “Top Dem Wesley Clark Says ‘N.Y.Money People’ Pushing War with Iran,” Forward ,January 12, 2007,以及 Shmuel Rosner, “The General and the ‘Money People,’”Ha'aretz , January 9, 2007。虽然《前沿》周报中的一篇文章讨论过美国犹太人社会担心他们被指责应对一场美国对伊朗的战争负责,然而却承认说:“犹太人团体的确在对采取强硬的伊朗路线施压中起到主要作用。”该文还指出:“许多鼓动性的努力,即使没有同以色列联系在一起,还是带着不可磨灭的犹太人痕迹。”参见“Groups Fear Public Backlash”。
〔102〕Ritter, Target Iran, 211.
〔103〕关于同伊朗之间的大交易应该是什么样子的精彩讨论,参见Flynt Leverett,Dealing with Tehran: Assessing U.S.Diplomatic Options Toward Iran (New York:Century Foundation, 2006), pp.19—25。
〔104〕接下来关于伊朗与布什政府建立联系失败的讨论基于Gregory Beals, “A Missed Opportunity with Iran,” Newsday (online), February 19, 2006; Bruck,“Exiles”; Leverett, Dealing with Tehran , pp.11—16; Flynt Leverett and Hillary Mann, “What We Wanted to Tell You About Iran,” New York Times ,December 22, 2006; Glenn Kessler, “In 2003, U.S.Spurned Iran's Offer of Dialogue,” Washington Post , June 18, 2006; Nicholas D.Kristof, “Diplomacy at Its Worst,” New York Times , April 29, 2007; Jim Lobe, “Bush Administration Divided over Road to Tehran,” Foreign Policy in Focus , August 11, 2003; Jim Lobe, “Bush Administration Paralyzed over Iran,” Asia Times Online , August 9, 2003; Gareth Porter, “How Neocons Sabotaged Iran's Help on al-Qaeda,” Antiwar.com ,February 23, 2006; Gareth Porter, “Burnt Offering,” American Prospect , June 6, 2006; Gareth Porter, “Neocons Blocked 2003 Nuclear Talks with Iran,” Antiwar.com , March 29, 2006,以及Gareth Porter, “Iran Proposal to US Offered Peace with Israel,” Antiwar.com ,May 25, 2006。
〔105〕本段落中所描述的2003年的建议,在转交给美国国务院和白宫的一份伊朗文件中作了详细说明。文件副本可登录《纽约时报》专栏作家尼古拉斯·D.克里斯托夫的网站http://kristof.blogs.nytimes.com/。
〔106〕James A.Baker III and Lee H.Hamilton, co-chairs, The Iraq Study Group Report (New York: Vintage Books, 2006), pp.50—52.
〔107〕关于阿富汗,参见David Rohde, “Iran Is Seeking More Influence in Afghanistan,” New York Times , December 27, 2006。
〔108〕Jim Lobe, “Pressure Grows on Bush,” Antiwar.com , May 26, 2006;Steven R.Weisman, “U.S.Is Debating Talks with Iran on Nuclear Issue,” New York Times , May 27, 2006.同样值得注意的是,美国犹太人中间对美国攻打伊朗的支持已急剧下降。2005年秋,有49%的犹太人支持采取军事行动;2006年秋季,只有38%的犹太人支持采取这种行动。“Poll: U.S.Jews Back Strike against Iran—by Israel,”Forward , October 27, 2006.
〔109〕Steven Kull, “Americans Assess US International Strategy,” World-PublicOpinion.org poll,由“国际政策态度”(International Policy Attitudes)项目举办,2006年12月7日。 也可参见“Baker-Hamilton Redux: The U.S.Public Remains Enthusiastic About the Bipartisan Proposals,” Pew Research Center, May 29,2007。
〔110〕Thomas L.Friedman, “Not-So-Strange Bedfellow,” New York Times ,January 31, 2007.
〔111〕Marc Perelman, “As Washington Studies Iraq Report, Jerusalem Frets over Tehran Talk,” Forward , December 15, 2006.也可参见Nathan Guttman,“Groups Mute Criticism of Iraq Report,” Forward , December 15, 2006。