结论
以色列的支持者通常提出的道德和战略观点,都不能够解释过去30年间美国与这个犹太国家之间非同寻常的关系。在后冷战时期尤其如此,此时,对以色列支持的战略理论基本上已经消失了,而以色列在被占领土的所作所为则严重地削弱了支持以色列的道德理论。然而,美以之间的关系却在继续增进和深化。
有些美国人肯定没有发现这种情形是反常的,因为他们真诚地相信,在美国对以色列进行支持的背后,有着强大的道德和战略理由。由于在这个故事中的根本事实与这一观点是如此相左,因此很难想象真正相信这一观点的人,其人数足以多到能够解释美国与这个犹太国家之间的例外关系。留给我们的是这样一个令人困惑的问题:要么是人数相对少的一些真正相信这一观点的人,对美国的外交政策施加了不成比例的影响力;要么是他们已经设法说服了许多其他人——尤其是那些关键的政治家和政策制定者——相信,这些错误的理论实际上是正确的。因为战略和道德理由越来越站不住脚了,因此在美国不断增加对以色列支持的这一引人注目的模式背后,必定存在着其他东西。
我们在下面的一章里对此问题加以讨论。
〔1〕“President Speaks to the American Israel Public Affairs Committee,”Washington Convention Center, Washington, DC(White House, Office of the Press Secretary, May 18, 2004).
〔2〕引自Mark Chmiel, “Elie Wiesel and the Question of Palestine,”Tikkun.org , November/December 2002。
〔3〕Paul Breines, Tough Jews: Political Fantasies and the Moral Dilemma of American Jewry (New York: Basic Books, 1990), pp.54—59; Michelle Mart,Eye on Israel: How America Came to View Israel as an Ally (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006), pp.169—174; Melani McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S.Interests in the Middle East, 1945—2000(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), pp.159—165; Edward Tivnan, The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), pp.50—51, 以及 David Twersky, “Novelist Leon Uris Taught Jewish Readers to Stand Tall,” Forward , June 27, 2003。
〔4〕(以色列建国的)主要神话在以下这部作品中被呈现并被加以驳斥:Simha Flapan,The Birth of Israel: Myths and Realities (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987)。
〔5〕关于以色列“新历史”简短而精彩的归纳,参见Avi Shlaim, “The New History of 1948 and the Palestinian Nakba,” Miftah.org , March 18, 2004。
〔6〕Meron Rappaport, “IDF Commander: We Fired More Than a Million Cluster Bombs in Lebanon,” Ha'aretz , September 12, 2006, 以及“Shooting Without a Target,” Ha'aretz editorial, September 14, 2006。
〔7〕Benny Morris, 1948 and After: Israel and the Palestinians (New York:Oxford University Press, 2003), p.13.也可参见Flapan, Birth of Israel ,pp.187—199。
〔8〕Morris, 1948 and After , p.14.莫里斯在一篇长文(“And Now for Some Facts: The Ignorance at the Heart of an Innuendo,” New Republic , May 8,2006)中,尖锐地批评了我们最初的那篇文章《以色列游说集团》,他声称我们犯下了许许多多的历史知识错误。具体而言,他对我们提出的挑战,有关于1948年独立战争军事平衡的解释,以及我们对犹太复国主义和以色列历史的其他几个关键事件的解释。莫里斯对我们的批评,使他与自己早期非常重要的学术成果(和其他受人尊敬的历史学家的工作)产生矛盾。这一学术成果为阐释以色列的建国与它的阿拉伯邻国和巴勒斯坦人之间的关系做了大量的工作。我们相信,这一学术成果证实了我们对以色列军事优势和领土野心的叙述,以及它的难民政策。关于我们对莫里斯的指控所进行的讨论,参见John J.Mearsheimer and Stephen M.Walt, “Setting the Record Straight: A Response to Critics of ‘The Israel Lobby,’” December 12, 2006, pp.26—46,登录www.israellobbybook.com。
〔9〕关于1948年的军事平衡,参见Trevor N.Dupuy, Elusive Victory: The Arab-Israeli Wars, 1947—1974(New York: Harper, 1978), pp.3—19, pp.121—125;Rashid Khalidi, “The Palestinians and 1948: The Underlying Causes of Failure,”in The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948, ed.Eugene L.Rogan and Avi Shlaim(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp.12—36; Rashid Khalidi, The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood(Boston: Beacon Press, 2006), chap.4; Haim Levenberg, Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine, 1945—1948(Portland, OR:Frank Cass, 1993); Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), chaps.1, 3; Benny Morris, Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881—1999(New York: Knopf, 1999), pp.187—189, 191—196, 215—223, 235—236,241—242; Morris,1948 and After , pp.13—16,以及Martin Van Creveld, The Sword and the Olive: A Critical History of the Israeli Defense Forces (New York:Public Affairs, 1998), pp.77—82。
〔10〕Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2006), p.45.
〔11〕Ibid, p.22.关于犹太复国主义者明白其作战部队相对于巴勒斯坦人具有决定性优势,以及这种情形使得他们能够寻求对巴勒斯坦人侵略性政策的证据,参见注解10,尤其是pp.22—23, 26, 41, 44—46, 70, 79, 84。
〔12〕Morris,1948 and After , p.15.
〔13〕Ibid.
〔14〕Morris, Righteous Victims, p.393.
〔15〕关于1956年、1967年和1973年战争的军事平衡,参见Dupuy, Elusive Victory , pp.146—147, 212—214, 231—244, 333—340, 388—390, 597—605,623—633; Morris, Righteous Victims , pp.286—291, 311—313, 393—395,以及Van Creveld, The Sword and the Olive , pp.137—138, 179—182, 239—243。
〔16〕在2000年10月第二次巴勒斯坦人起义开始之后,以色列在2001年至2002年遭受了经济低迷期。然而,大多数专家却认为,这一经济低迷的责任基本上要归咎于全球经济衰退。《福布斯》杂志2002年5月底那一期上的一篇文章,对一般人的看法进行了归纳:“以色列政府和民间经济学家估计,以色列2/3的国内生产总值增长的重挫,即从2000年6.4%的增长率下降到当前的零增长率,不是缘于恐怖主义,而是缘于高科技所导致的全球不景气。” 参见David Simons, “Cold Calculation of Terror,” Forbes , May 28,2002。即便巴勒斯坦人的起义还在继续,但是2003年至2005年的以色列经济却得以反弹。参见Emma Clark, “Israel's Neglected Economy,” BBC News (online),September 2, 2002; Nadav Morag, “The Economic and Social Effects of Intensive Terrorism: Israel, 2000—2004,” Middle East Review of International Affairs10,no.3(September 2006); Neal Sandler, “Israel's Economy: As if the Intifada Weren't Enough,” BusinessWeek , June 18, 2001,以及 Linda Sharaby,“Israel's Economic Growth: Success Without Security,” Middle East Review of International Affairs 6, no.3(September 2002)。
〔17〕Amos Harel, “Israel Maintains Its Strategic Advantage, Says Jaffee Center,” Ha'aretz , November 23, 2005.也可参见Uri Bar-Joseph, “The Paradox of Israeli Power,” Survival 46, no.4(Winter 2004—2005),以及Martin Van Creveld, “Opportunity Beckons,” Jerusalem Post , May 16, 2003。贾菲战略研究中心现已并入国家战略研究所这一新的机构。
〔18〕Alan Dershowitz, “Debunking the Newest—and Oldest—Jewish Conspiracy:A Reply to the Mearsheimer-Walt ‘Working Paper,’” John F.Kennedy School of Government Faculty Research Working Paper, Harvard University, April 2006,p.22,以及Martin Peretz, “Killer Angels: Murdering Jews, Then and Now,”New Republic , April 15, 2002, pp.17—18。
〔19〕Morris,1948 and After, pp.11—12.这一段落中接下来所引用的莫里斯的内容参见该书第13页。
〔20〕Shlomo Ben-Ami, Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli-Arab Tragedy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp.35—36.也可参见Flapan,Birth of Israel, pp.119—152。
〔21〕一般人的这一观点在以下作品中得到了反映:Michael B.Oren, “Did Israel Want the Six-Day War?” Azure5759, no.7(Spring 1999),以及 Michael B.Oren,Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (New York:Oxford University Press, 2002)。
〔22〕关于1967年战争起源的最佳新作包括Ben-Ami, Scars of War , pp.96—114;Norman G.Finkelstein, “Abba Eban with Footnotes,” Journal of Palestine Studies 32, no.3(Spring 2003); Roland Popp, “Stumbling Decidedly into the Six-Day War,” Middle East Journal 60, no.2(Spring 2006),以及Tom Segev,1967: Israel, the War, and the Year That Transformed the Middle East ,trans.Jessica Cohen(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007)。
〔23〕Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York:Norton, 2000), p.237.
〔24〕Ibid., p.235.也可参见Stephen S.Rosenfeld, “Israel and Syria:Correcting the Record,” Washington Post , December 24, 1999。
〔25〕Ben-Ami, Scars of War , p.100.
〔26〕Segev,1967, pp.202—212, 295—296.
〔27〕引自注解26,p.300。也可参见注解26, pp.387—388。
〔28〕Ben-Ami, Scars of War , pp.76—77.
〔29〕Morris, Righteous Victims , p.387.也可参见John J.Mearsheimer,Conventional Deterrence (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), pp.155—162。
〔30〕引自Mearsheimer, Conventional Deterrence , p.159。
〔31〕Yoram Meital, Peace in Tatters: Israel, Palestine, and the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006), pp.148—152; Charles A.Radin,“Arabs Offer to Accept Israel with Conditions,” Boston Globe , March 29,2002,以及Howard Schneider, “Arab Countries Unanimously Endorse Saudi Peace Plan,” Washington Post , March 29, 2002。
〔32〕根据《回归法》(Law of Return),“犹太人”被定义为“由犹太母亲所生者,或已皈依犹太教、且非其他宗教成员者”。实际的法律和相关的修订内容,可登录以色列外交部网站www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/1950_1959/Law%20Return%2057101950。最近在以色列已在讨论通过立法,以便承认那些父亲为犹太人,而母亲为非犹太人的个人为犹太人。参见Shahar Ilan, “Bill Would Recognize Judaism Through Father,” Ha'aretz ,March 12, 2006。
〔33〕《以色列国建国宣言》可在以下文献中找到:John Norton Moore, ed., The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Readings and Documents (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), pp.934—937。
〔34〕David Ben-Gurion, Israel: A Personal History , trans.Nechemia Meyers and Uzy Nystar(New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1971), p.839.
〔35〕这些数字基于Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Abstract of Israel , 2006, Table 2.1, www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/,以及 Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, Palestine Facts and Info ,“Population,” www.passia.org/galesting_facts/facts and figures/0 facts and figures.htm。以色列中央统计局(Central Bureau of Statistics, CBS)将大约30万居住在以色列的人定义为“其他人”。他们大多是犹太移民的家庭成员,或是那些祖先为犹太人而母亲为非犹太人的个人,以色列政府因此没有将他们归类为犹太人。如果把他们也归类犹太人,那么在以色列的犹太人总数就将是大约560万人,而不是以色列中央统计局的数字530万。
〔36〕一项在2007年2月至3月进行的关于以色列犹太人的民意调查得出结论认为:“人口统计上的挑战对大部分犹太人来说是日益紧迫的问题,并且对界定在国家安全问题上的集体方法起到了作用。” Yehuda Ben Meir and Dafna Shaked, “The People Speak:Israeli Public Opinion on National Security, 2005—2007,” Memorandum no.90(Tel Aviv: Institute for National Security Studies, May 2007), p.10,pp.64—65.也可参见Aluf Benn, “Israel's Identity Crisis,” Salon.com , May 16,2005; Larry Derfner, “Sounding the Alarm About Israel's Demographic Crisis,”Forward , January 9, 2004; Jon E.Dougherty, “Will Israel Become an Arab State?” NewsMax.com , January 12, 2004; Lily Galili, “A Jewish Demographic State,” Ha'aretz , June 28, 2002,以及 Gideon Levy, “Wombs in the Service of the State,” Ha'aretz , September 9, 2002。
〔37〕Shulamit Aloni, “A Country for Some of Its Citizens?” Ha'aretz ,February 24, 2007.《人的尊严和自由基本法》可登录以色列议会网站,www .knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic3_eng.htm。
〔38〕Jonathan Cook, Blood and Religion: The Unmasking of the Jewish and Democratic State (Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2006), pp.17—18.也可参见Adalah and the Arab Association for Human Rights, “Equal Rights and Minority Rights for the Palestinian Arab Minority in Israel,” 关于以色列执行公民与政治权利国际公约第26条和27条而于1998年7月提交给联合国人权委员会的报告; As'ad Ghanem, Nadim Rouhana, and Oren Yiftachel, “Questioning Ethnic Democracy': A Response to Sammy Smooha,” Israel Studies 3, no.2(Fall 1998); David B.Green,“The Other Israelis,” Boston Globe , February 25, 2007; Human Rights Watch,Second Class: Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools (New York, September 2001), chap.8; Frances Raday, “Religion,Multiculturalism and Equality: The Israeli Case,” in Israel Yearbook on Human Rights , Vol.25(1995), ed.Yoram Dinstein(The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff,1996), pp.193—241; Ahmad H.Sa'di, “Israel as Ethnic Democracy: What Are the Implications for the Palestinian Minority?” Arab Studies Quarterly22, no.1(Winter 2000),以及 Sammy Smooha, “Ethnic Democracy: Israel as an Archetype,” Israel Studies2, no.2(Fall 1997)。
〔39〕“The Official Summation of the Or Commission Report,” published in Ha'aretz , September 2, 2003.关于许多以色列人对该报告的结果和建议抱以怎样敌对态度的证据,参见“No Avoiding the Commission Recommendations,” Ha'aretzeditorial,September 4, 2003,以及Molly Moore, “Israelis Look Inward After Critical Report,” Washington Post , September 3, 2003。也可参见 Bernard Avishai,“Saving Israel from Itself: A Secular Future for the Jewish State,” Harper's ,January 2005; Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel's Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980),以及 Chris McGreal, “Worlds Apart,” Guardian , February 6, 2006。
〔40〕Roee Nahmias, “Marriage to an Arab Is National Treason,”Ynetnews.com , March 27, 2007,以及 Yoav Stern, “Poll: 50% of Israeli Jews Support State-Backed Arab Emigration,” Ha'aretz , March 27, 2007。关于2006年一份调查的类似结果,参见Eli Ashkenazi and Jack Khoury, “Poll: 68% of Jews Would Refuse to Live in Same Building as an Arab,” Ha'aretz , March 22, 2006;Chris McGreal, “41% of Israel's Jews Favor Segregation,” Guardian , March 24,2006; Sharon Roffe-Ofir, “Poll: Israeli Jews Shun Arabs,” Ynetnews.com ,March 22, 2006,以及 Kenneth J.Theisen, “Racism Alive and Well in Israel?”Pittsburgh Independent Media Center(online), June 1, 2006。
〔41〕Israeli Democracy Institute, “The Democracy Index: Major Findings 2003.” 此报告的摘要可登录www.idi.org.il/english/article.asp?id=1466。
〔42〕根据一份2007年的民意调查,63%的以色列犹太人反对在内阁中存在一名阿拉伯裔部长。2004年,75%的以色列犹太人对此持反对意见,而2005年和2006年对此持反对意见的以色列犹太人则是60%。参见Ben Meir and Shaked, “The People Speak,” p.80。也可参见ibid., p.22, pp.79—82; Orly Halpern, “Arab Cabinet Pick Stirs Zionism-Racism' Debate,” Forward , January 19, 2007; Gil Hoffman,“ Majadleh Slot the End of Zionism,'” Jerusalem Post , January 10, 2007;Ronny Sofer, “Cabinet Approves First Arab Minister,” Ynetnews.com , January 28, 2007,以及Scott Wilson, “In First, Arab Muslim Joins Israeli Cabinet,”Washington Post , January 29, 2007。
〔43〕引自Justin Huggler, “Israel Imposes ‘Racist’ Marriage Law,”Independent , August 1, 2003。也可参见James Bennet, “Israel Blocks Palestinians from Marrying into Residency,” New York Times , July 31, 2003;“Racist Legislation,” Ha'aretzeditorial, July, 19, 2004; “Racist Legislation,” Ha'aretz editorial, January 18, 2005,以及Shahar Ilan, “Law Denying Family Unification to Israelis and Palestinians Extended,” Ha'aretz ,March 21, 2007。即便是反诽谤联盟也批评这项立法,尽管是温和的批评。Nathan Guttman,Yair Ettinger, and Sharon Sadeh, “ADL Criticizes Law Denying Citizenship to Palestinians Who Marry Israelis,” Ha'aretz , August 5, 2003.
〔44〕引自Tovah Tzimuki, “Government Supports Revocation of Citizenship,”Ynetnews.com , January 8, 2007。也可参见 Saed Bannoura, “Israeli Knesset Passes Law to Revoke Citizenship of ‘Unpatriotic’ Israelis,” International Middle East Media Center(online), January 10, 2007; Sheera Claire Frenkel,“‘Disloyalty’ Bill Passes First Hurdle,” Jerusalem Post , January 10, 2007;Tom Segev, “Conditional Citizenship,” Ha'aretz , January 11, 2007,以及Yuval Yoaz, “Government to Back Bill Allowing Court to Rescind Traitors'Citizenship,” Ha'aretz , January 7, 2007。
〔45〕引自Larry Derfner, “Rattling the Cage: A Bigot Called Bibi,”Jerusalem Post , January 3, 2007。也可参见Aluf Benn and Gideon Alon,“Netanyahu: Israel's Arabs Are the Real Demographic Threat,” Ha'aretz ,December 18, 2003; Ron Dermer, “The Nerve of Bibi,” Jerusalem Post ,January 9, 2007; Karina's Kolumn(Karina Robinson), “Benjamin Netanyahu:Israel's Prime Minister in Waiting,” Banker (online), July 1, 2004,以及Neta Sela, “Netanyahu: Pensions Cut-Arabs' Birth Rate Declined,”Ynetnews.com , January 3, 2007。
〔46〕这些声明并非孤立性的例子。比如在2004年初,以色列国防部副部长泽厄夫·博伊姆即认为,巴勒斯坦恐怖主义是由于其“遗传的缺陷”。另一名以色列议员支持他的观点,他说恐怖主义“流淌在他们的血液之中”,而这就是如果你“转过身去”的话,为什么阿拉伯人“将在你背后捅刀子”的原因。即便是历史学家本尼·莫里斯也仍然将巴勒斯坦人称之为应该像“连环杀手”一样加以对待的“野蛮人”,尽管他在更早的学术研究中做了大量的工作来揭示以色列真正的巴勒斯坦政策。贝京的评论引自 Amnon Kapeliuk, “Begin and the ‘Beasts,’” New Statesman , June 25, 1982, p.12。埃尔坦的评论引自David K.Shipler, “Most West Bank Arabs Blaming U.S.for Impasse,” New York Times ,April 14, 1983,以及Uzi Benziman, Sharon: An Israeli Caesar(New York: Adama Books, 1985), p.264。亚阿隆的评论引自Ari Shavit, “The Enemy Within,”Ha'aretz , August 27, 2002。博伊姆及其支持者的评论引自Yuval Yoaz, “AG:Ethics Committee to Probe Racist Comments Made by MKs,” Ha'aretz , August 10,2004。莫里斯的评论引自Ari Shavit, “Survival of the Fittest,” Ha'aretz ,January 9, 2004。
〔47〕Larry Derfner, “Rattling the Cage: The Racism of Israeli Youth,”Jerusalem Post , January 17, 2007.也可参见 Ahiya Raved, “Youth Believe Arabs Dirty, Uneducated,” Ynetnews.com , January 9, 2007。
〔48〕引自Ben Lynfield, “The Rise of Avigdor Lieberman,” Nation ,December 14, 2006。也可参见Uri Avnery, “The Lovable Man? Lieberman and the Decline of Israeli Democracy,” Antiwar.com , November 3, 2006; Akiva Eldar,“Let's Hear It for the Haiders,” Ha'aretz ,October 30, 2006; Leonard Fein,“The Fantasies of Avigdor Lieberman,” Forward , October 20, 2006; Gershom Gorenberg, “The Minister for National Fears,” Atlantic , May 2007,以及Henry Siegman, “Hurricane Carter,” Nation , January 22, 2007。以色列国家宗教党前领导人埃非·艾塔姆(Effi Eitam)与创立右翼政党祖国党的以色列将军雷哈瓦姆·泽厄维(Rehavam Ze'evi),是公开支持人口迁移的前政府部长。
〔49〕“The Democracy Index: Major Findings 2003”; Yulie Khromchenko,“Survey: Most Jewish Israelis Support Transfer of Arabs,” Ha'aretz , June 22,2004; Yoav Stern, “Poll: Most Israeli Jews Say Israeli Arabs Should Emigrate,” Ha'aretz , April 4, 2005; McGreal, “41% of Israel's Jews”;Amiram Barkat and Jack Khoury, “Poll: Gov't Should Help Arab Citizens Emigrate,” Ha'aretz , May 10, 2006,以及 Roffe-Ofir, “Poll”。也可参见 Uzi Arad, “Swap Meet: Trading Land for Peace,” New Republic , November 28 和December 5, 2005; Amnon Barzilai, “More Israeli Jews Favor Transfer of Palestinians, Israeli Arabs—Poll Finds,” Ha'aretz ,October 10, 2005; Arik Carmon, “A Blot on Israeli Democracy,” Ha'aretz , December 12, 2005;Evelyn Gordon, “No Longer the Political Fringe,” Jerusalem Post , September 14, 2006; Ben Lynfield, “Israeli Expulsion Idea Gains Steam,” Christian Science Monitor , February 6, 2002; Stern, “Poll: 50% of Israeli Jews”;Matthew Wagner, “New Proposal: Transfer-for-Cash Plan,” Jerusalem Post ,January 21, 2007,以及 Steven I.Weiss, “Israeli Rightist Calls for Transfer of Arabs,” Forward , September 15, 2006。
〔50〕B'Tselem, “The Scope of Israeli Control in the Gaza Strip,”www.btselem.org/english/Gaza_Strip/Gaza_Status.asp; David Sharrock, “Israel's‘Invisible Hand’ Still Controls Gaza, Says Report,” Times (London),January 15, 2007,以及 Scott Wilson, “For Gaza, a Question of Responsibility,” Washington Post , March 21, 2007。
〔51〕Jan Egeland and Jan Eliasson, “La catastrophe humaine de Gaza est une bombe à retardement,” Figaro (online), September 28, 2006.也可参见 Steven Erlanger, “As Parents Go Unpaid, Gaza Children Go Hungry,” New York Times ,September 14, 2006; Steven Erlanger, “Years of Strife and Lost Hope Scar Young Palestinians,” New York Times , March 12, 2007; Donald Macintyre,“Gaza in Danger of Turning into a Giant Prison,' Says Mideast Envoy,”Independent , November 14, 2005; Rory McCarthy, “Occupied Gaza Like Apartheid South Africa, Says UN Report,” Guardian , February 23, 2007; Sara Roy, “The Economy of Gaza,” Znet (online), October 9, 2006; Mohammed Samhouri, “Looking Beyond the Numbers: The Palestinian Socioeconomic Crisis of 2006,” Middle East Briefno.16, Crown Center for Middle East Studies, Brandeis University, February 2007; United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs(OCHA), “Statement on Gaza by United Nations Humanitarian Agencies Working in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,” August 3, 2006,以及OCHA, “The Humanitarian Monitor: Occupied Palestinian Territory,” no.10,February 2007。
〔52〕“Making the Law a Laughingstock,” Ha'aretzeditorial, December 31,2006.
〔53〕Steven Erlanger, “West Bank Sites on Private Land, Data Shows,” New York Times , March 14, 2007; Nadav Shragai, “Peace Now: 32% of Land Held for Settlements Is Private Property,” Ha'aretz , March 14, 2007.也可参见Greg Myre, “For West Bank, It's a Highway to Frustration,” New York Times ,November 18, 2006,以及 “Legitimization of Land Theft,” Ha'aretzeditorial,February 27, 2007。
〔54〕第一波来到巴勒斯坦的欧洲犹太人即人们所知道的第一次犹太人移民(the First Aliyah) ,移民的年份涵盖从1882年至1903年。根据奥斯曼帝国的人口普查,1882年巴勒斯坦的犹太人略多于1.5万人。在贾斯廷·麦卡锡(Justin McCarthy)的作品 [The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), pp.10—13.]中, 有从1850年至1915年的详尽数据。然而,由于麦卡锡的数据是以奥斯曼帝国的人口普查数字为基础的,因此排除了“数目不详的维持原有公民身份的犹太移民”。他进一步指出:“早期的非公民身份的犹太人本来就是相对不值一提的”,估计的数目“可能为1000至2000人”。因此,1882年在巴勒斯坦的犹太人上限可能是1.7万人。也可参见Mark Tessler, A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), p.124。
〔55〕1893年,巴勒斯坦的总人口约为53万,其中约1.9万人(3.6%)是犹太人,绝大多数的其余人口则是由阿拉伯人组成。McCarthy, Population of Palestine , p.10.
〔56〕20世纪80年代中期,当琼·彼得斯(Joan Peters)的作品From Time Immemorial: The Origins of the Arab-Jewish Conflict over Palestine (New York:Harper, 1984)出版时,这一问题得到重新关注。她认为,当犹太人开始从欧洲来到巴勒斯坦的时候,那里的阿拉伯人比一般观点所认为的要少得多;而只是在犹太人开始开发这片土地之后,阿拉伯人才大量迁移到巴勒斯坦。一大批著名的美国犹太人满腔热情地支持彼得斯书中的观点。然而,就在此书出版后不久,许多学者表明,彼得斯的作品不仅是以“高度的倾向性来使用或忽略能够得到的原始资料”为基础的,而且其核心观点也是极其错误的。Yehoshua Porath, “Mrs.Peters's Palestine,” New York Review of Books ,January 16, 1986.杰出的以色列历史学家波拉斯(Porath)在与《纽约时报》进行对话时说,彼得斯的书“纯属伪造”,而且在以色列,该书“除了可能作为宣传武器之外,几乎普遍被视为完全的垃圾品”。Colin Campbell, “Dispute Flares over Book on Claims to Palestine,” New York Times , November 28, 1985.也可参见Norman G.Finkelstein,Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict (London: Verso, 2001),chap.2.
〔57〕Laurence J.Silberstein, The Postzionism Debates: Knowledge and Power in Israeli Culture (New York: Routledge, 1999), p.51.
〔58〕Ben-Ami, Scars of War , p.9.
〔59〕1948年,除了65万犹太人生活在巴勒斯坦之外,还有大约120万巴勒斯坦人,转化为人口比例即65%的巴勒斯坦人和35% 的犹太人。参见Morris, 1948 and After ,p.14。弗拉番所使用的人口数字中,犹太人占33%的人口(Birth of Israel , p.44),而莫里斯在Righteous Victims (p.186)一书中所使用的数字,犹太人占人口的百分比则是37%。
〔60〕一些人相信,本-古里安及其追随者弗拉基米尔·雅勃廷斯基这样的修正主义者具有较少的领土目标野心。但正如阿维·施莱姆清楚表明的那样:“(本-古里安)和修正主义者之间的差异,并不在于前者是领土最低限度的要求者、后者是领土最大限度的要求者,而是在于前者追求的是渐进主义战略、后者坚持的则是一种要么全部获得、要么就全部失去的方法。”Shlaim, Iron Wall , p.21.犹太复国主义者小心谨慎地不在公开场合多说他们在巴勒斯坦的最终目标,因为他们害怕这样做会激怒阿拉伯人和英国人,并破坏他们的事业。然而,本-古里安却在一本合著的书中阐述了他有关以色列的边界将会是什么样子的观点,该书用意第绪语写成,1918年在美国出版。除了今天以色列的边界状况,在本-古里安有关以色列边界的观点中,还包括被占领土、南黎巴嫩至利塔尼河(Litani River)地区、叙利亚南部的一部分领土、约旦的大部,以及西奈半岛。Morris, Righteous Victims , p.75.
〔61〕Flapan, Birth of Israel , pp.103—104,以及Morris, Birth Revisited ,p.69。
〔62〕这些话引自Flapan, Birth of Israel , p.22,以及 Shlaim, Iron Wall ,p.21。关于犹太复国主义早期分治思想更详细的讨论,参见Mearsheimer and Walt,“Setting the Record Straight,” pp.33—37。
〔63〕Uri Ben-Eliezer, The Making of Israeli Militarism (Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1998), p.150.
〔64〕Avi Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists,and Palestine, 1921—1951(New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).也可参见Morris, 1948 and After , p.10; Benny Morris, The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews (London: I.B.Tauris, 2002); Ilan Pappe,Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1948—1951(New York: St.Martin's Press,1988),以及 Mary C.Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain and the Making of Jordan(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987)。
〔65〕Benny Morris, “Revisiting the Palestinian Exodus of 1948,” in The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948, ed.Eugene L.Rogan and Avi Shlaim(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p.40.也可参见 Ben-Ami,Scars of War , pp.33—34,以及Shlaim, Iron Wall , p.25。
〔66〕Nur Masalha, Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of “Transfer”in Zionist Political Thought, 1882—1948(Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1992); Morris, Birth Revisited , chap.2,以及 Morris,“Revisiting the Palestinian Exodus,” pp.39—48。
〔67〕引自Masalha, Expulsion of the Palestinians , p.128。也可参见Morris,Righteous Victims , pp.140, 142, 168—169。本-古里安的声明,引自他1942年5月在纽约巴尔的摩酒店举行的犹太复国主义特别大会之前所写的一份备忘录。
〔68〕引自Michael Bar-Zohar, Facing a Cruel Mirror: Israel's Moment of Truth (New York: Scribner, 1990), p.16。
〔69〕引自Shavit, “Survival of the Fittest”。也可参见Benny Morris, “A New Exodus for the Middle East?” Guardian , October 3, 2002。本-古里安在1947年12月30日对以色列总工会中央委员会说:“分配给这个犹太国家的地区内有不超过52万的犹太人和大约35万非犹太人——他们大多数为阿拉伯人。连同在耶路撒冷的犹太人,在这个犹太国家成立时,其总人口将会达到大约100万,其中包括近40%的非犹太人。这样的(人口)构成并未为一个犹太国家提供一个稳定的基础。必须毫不含糊而敏锐地看待这一(人口统计的)事实。以这样的(人口)构成,甚至不能够绝对有把握地说,控制权将掌握在占多数的犹太人手中……只要犹太人口仅仅占60%的多数,就不会有一个稳定而强大的犹太国家。引自Masalha, Expulsion of the Palestinians , p.176。
〔70〕引自Morris, Righteous Victims , p.169。
〔71〕Morris, “Revisiting the Palestinian Exodus,” pp.43—44.
〔72〕在Morris, Birth Revisited 和Pappe, Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine 的书中,提供了对这一事件的详细描述。也可参见Meron Benvenisti, Sacred Landscape:The Buried History of the Holy Land Since 1948, trans.Maxine Kaufman-Lacusta(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), chaps.3—4,以及Masalha,Expulsion of the Palestinians , chap.5。莫里斯指出:“1937年之前对于人口迁移的偶然想法和1937年开始对支持这一想法的实际共识,在这样一种意义上对1948年所发生的事情起到了作用,即这些想法决定了犹太复国主义领导层,以及该领导层下面那些管理这个新国家民事和军事机构的官员和军官,进行后来所发生的人口迁移。在某种程度上,这些人都是在1948年带着一种容易接受进行人口迁移和人口驱逐想法和做法的心态来到这里的,大部分原因要归因于连续不断地对阿拉伯人反对犹太复国主义而施行的暴力,这种暴力使中东欧发生的越来越多的对离散犹太人的迫害显得逊色。而由于这一先决条件,人口迁移的发生得以大规模地顺利进行,因此这种人口迁移在伊休夫的任何地方几乎都没有遇到严重的反对。” Morris, “Revisiting the Palestinian Exodus,” p.48。
〔73〕Erskine Childers, “The Other Exodus,” Spectator , May 12, 1961;Flapan, Birth of Israel , pp.81—118; Walid Khalidi, “Why Did the Palestinians Leave Revisited,” Journal of Palestine Studies 34, no.2(Winter 2005); Walid Khalidi, “The Fall of Haifa,” Middle East Forum 35, no.10(December, 1959); Morris, Birth Revisited ,以及Pappe, Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine , p.131。可以肯定的是,无论是为了确保巴勒斯坦人不陷于炮战之中,还是为了确保他们不会被对其进行种族清洗的犹太复国主义军队所杀害,战斗期间一些阿拉伯指挥官的确曾下令巴勒斯坦平民撤离家园。在臭名昭著的亚辛村大屠杀——1948年4月9日有100名至110名巴勒斯坦人在那里遭到谋杀——之后,对死于犹太人之手的恐惧成了他们撤离家园特别强大的动机。Morris, Righteous Victims , p.209.就像莫里斯所报道的那样:“以色列国防军情报处称亚辛村大屠杀为一般的阿拉伯人大批离去的‘决定性加速因素’”。Righteous Victims , p.209.这种撤离家园的命令与自愿或精英引导的神话不相干。参见Ben-Ami, Scars of War , pp.43—44。
〔74〕引自Morris, Birth Revisited , p.318。关于犹太复国主义反对巴勒斯坦难民回到家园的更多细节,参见Ibid., chap.5。
〔75〕Baruch Kimmerling, Zionism and Territory: The Socio-Territorial Dimensions of Zionist Politics (Berkeley, CA: Institute of International Studies, 1983), p.143.
〔76〕Pappe, Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine , xiii.也可参见Walid Khalidi,ed., All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948(Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1992), 该书确认被毁村庄数是418个,而非531个。数目上的差异是由于对巴勒斯坦村庄构成元素的定义有别所致。佩普和其他一些巴勒斯坦历史学界在计算村庄数量时把一些小的社区也包括在内,而卡里迪则没有将其包括在内。参见2007年5月15日本书的两位作者与伊兰·佩普之间的通信。
〔77〕引自Khalidi, All That Remains , xxxi。
〔78〕引自Nahum Goldmann, The Jewish Paradox , trans.Steve Cox(New York:Grosset and Dunlap, 1978), p.99。
〔79〕引自Ian Lustick, “To Build and to Be Built By: Israel and the Hidden Logic of the Iron Wall,” Israel Studies 1, no.1(Spring 1996): 200。(https://www.daowen.com)
〔80〕引自Ben-Ami, Scars of War , p.12。
〔81〕Geoffrey Aronson, Israel, Palestinians, and the Intifada: Creating Facts on the West Bank (London: Kegan Paul International, 1990); Amnon Barzilai, “A Brief History of the Missed Opportunity,” Ha'aretz , June 5,2002; Amnon Barzilai, “Some Saw the Refugees as the Key to Peace,” Ha'aretz ,June 11, 2002; Moshe Behar, “The Peace Process and Israeli Domestic Politics in the 1990s,” Socialism and Democracy 16, no.2(Summer—Fall 2002); Jimmy Carter, Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006);Adam Hanieh and Catherine Cook, “A Road Map to the Oslo Cul-de-Sac,” Middle East Report Online , May 15, 2003; “Israel's Interests Take Primacy: An Interview with Dore Gold,” in bitterlemons.org , “What Constitutes a Viable Palestinian State?” March 15, 2004, edition 10; Baruch Kimmerling,Politicide: The Real Legacy of Ariel Sharon (London: Verso, 2003); Nur Masalha, Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: The Politics of Expansion(London: Pluto Press, 2000); Tanya Reinhart, The Road Map to Nowhere:Israel/Palestine Since 2003(London: Verso, 2006); Sara Roy, “Erasing the Optics' of Gaza,” Daily Star (online), February 14, 2004,以及“36 Years,and Still Counting,” Ha'aretz, September 26, 2003。
〔82〕引自Rashid Khalidi, Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p.147。梅厄还说道:“问题并不是在巴勒斯坦似乎存在自认为是巴勒斯坦民族的巴勒斯坦民族,问题并不是我们来这里把他们赶走,并夺走了他们的国家。他们并不存在。”引用自Masalha,Imperial Israel , p.47。
〔83〕达扬的话引自Benny Morris, Israel's Border Wars, 1949—1956(New York:Oxford University Press, 1997), p.12。有关其他以色列将军的观点,参见Benny Morris, Israel's Border Wars, 1949—1956(New York: Oxford University Press,1997), p.12.有关本-古里安的想法,参见Morris, Righteous Victims , p.261,p.290。
〔84〕Morris, Israel's Border Wars , p.11.
〔85〕引自Hanieh and Cook, “Road Map”。也可参见Akiva Eldar, “On the Same Page, Ten Years On,” Ha'aretz , November 5, 2005; David Grossman, “The Night Our Hope for Peace Died,” Guardian , November 4, 2005,以及Michael Jansen, “A Practice That ‘Prevents the Emergence of a Palestinian State,’”Jordan Times (online), November 10, 2005。施罗姆·本-阿米清楚地表明,不仅拉宾,而且他随后的继任者西蒙·佩雷斯都反对建立一个巴勒斯坦国。Scars of War , p.220.最后,在拉宾的总理任期(1992—1995年)中,明显多数的以色列人反对建立一个巴勒斯坦国。直到1997年,才有至少过半的以色列犹太人支持建立一个巴勒斯坦国。在1993年《奥斯陆协议》签署的时候,35%的人支持建立一个巴勒斯坦国。Ben Meir and Shaked, “The People Speak,” pp.64—65.
〔86〕希拉里·克林顿的话引自Tom Rhodes and Christopher Walker, “Congress Tells Israel to Reject Clinton's Pullout Plan,” Times (London), May 8, 1998。关于白宫的反应,参见James Bennet, “Aides Disavow Mrs.Clinton on Mideast,”New York Times , May 8, 1998。也可参见Robin Dorf, “News Analysis: What Motivated Hillary's Call for a Palestinian State?” JTA.org , May 15, 1998;“Hillary's Folly,” Jewish Week editorial, May 15, 1998,以及 Brian Knowlton,“Mrs.Clinton Starts Storm by Backing ‘Palestine,’” International Herald Tribune , May 8, 1998。
〔87〕“Ex-PM Shamir Objects to Palestinian State, but Still Supports Sharon,” Ha'aretz , November 26, 2002; Benjamin Netanyahu, “A Limited Palestinian State,” Washington Post , June 20, 2003.在1998年的一次采访中,沙米尔说道,以色列的边界“从约旦王国的边境一直到地中海”,他还说以色列面临的“最大的危险,”是“在以色列建立一个巴勒斯坦国”。参见“Yitzhak Shamir: A Lifetime of Activism,” Middle East Quarterly 6, no.2(June 1999)。
〔88〕据报道,在2005年10月的一次演讲中,艾哈迈迪-内贾德总统呼吁将以色列“从地图上抹去”,这一声明被广泛解释为威胁毁灭这个犹太国家及其居民的生存。对艾哈迈-迪内贾德声明的更精确翻译如下:“占领耶路撒冷的政权应该从历史中消失”(或者翻译为:“从历史中清除掉”)。艾哈迈-迪内贾德认为,以色列对耶路撒冷和巴勒斯坦的控制,被看作一个应该加以扭转的临时状况,就像苏联对东欧的控制或伊朗的王权一样,而不是要求毁灭以色列的生存。虽然艾哈迈迪-内贾德的此番话仍然具有挑衅性,并令人十分反感,但是要求在政治上分解巴勒斯坦的这个犹太国家,并不等同于要求毁灭以色列或其人口的生存。参见Ethan Bronner, “Just How Far Did They Go, Those Words Against Israel?”New York Times , June 11, 2006; Jonathan Steele, “Lost in Translation,”Guardian , June 14, 2006,以及“Iranian President at Tehran Conference: ‘Very Soon, This Stain of Disgrace [i.e., Israel] Will Be Purged from the Center of the Islamic World-and This Is Attainable,’” Middle East Media Research Institute, Special Dispatch Series no.1013, October 28, 2005。
〔89〕“Bombs,” New Republiceditorial, August 27 & September 3, 2001;Martin Peretz, “Good Fight,” New Republic , May 27, 2002,以及 Martin Peretz, “Blows to Israel Must Never Go Unanswered,” Los Angeles Times ,September 5, 2003。关于德肖维茨,其与此最相关的作品是The Case for Israel(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2003)。关于对此书的尖锐评论,参见 Norman G.Finkelstein, Beyond Chutzpah: On the Misuse of Anti-Semitism and the Abuse of History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005)。也可参见Michael Desch, “The Chutzpah of Alan Dershowitz,” American Conservative , December 5,2005,以及“Dershowitz v.Desch,” American Conservative , January 16, 2006。
〔90〕Yaakov Katz, “‘IDF the Most Moral Army in the World’,” Jerusalem Post , June 11, 2006; Leslie Susser, “Israelis Question Army Morality,”JewishJournal.com , December 17, 2004,以及“Cabinet Communique,” Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, December 12, 2004, www.mfa,ogve.il/MFA/Government/Communiques/2004/Cabinet%20Communique%2012Dec-2004。也可参见Richard Cohen, “Truth Massacred,” Washington Post , August 6, 2002,以及Neve Gordon, Israel's Slippery Moral Slope, In These Times (online), January 31, 2003。
〔91〕Meron Benvenisti, “The Model of the Mythological Sabra,” Ha'aretz ,September 12, 2002.
〔92〕Morris, Righteous Victims , chaps.2—5.
〔93〕引自Shabtai Teveth, Ben-Gurion: The Burning Ground, 1886—1948(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), p.544。
〔94〕Morris, Birth Revisited .许多有关1948年那些事件的以色列文件依然被指定为机密件;莫里斯预计:“关于那些驱逐和暴行,随着时间的过去和更多能够获取到的以色列记录,我们期待着有另外的披露出现。”Morris, “Revisiting the Palestinian Exodus,” p.49.事实上,他坚持认为,他所知道的报道过的强奸案“只是冰山一角”。参见Shavit, “Survival of the Fittest”。
〔95〕引自Pappe, Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine , p.69。关于本-古里安评论的背景,参见Pappe, Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine , pp.61—72。
〔96〕Morris, Israel's Border Wars , p.432.也可参见Morris, Israel's Border Wars , pp.126—153, 178—184。
〔97〕Gabby Bron, “Egyptian POWs Ordered to Dig Graves, Then Shot by Israeli Army,” Yedioth Ahronoth , August 17, 1995; Ronal Fisher, “Mass Murder in the 1956 Sinai War,” Ma’ariv , August 8, 1995(这两篇文章的副本可在以下期刊上找到:Journal of Palestine Studies 25, no.3 [Spring 1996]: 148—155); Galal Bana, “Egypt: We Will Turn to the International War Crimes Tribunal in the Hague If Israel Will Not Compensate Murdered Prisoners of War,”Ha'aretz , July 24, 2002; Zehavit Friedman, “Personal Reminiscence:Remembering Ami Kronfeld,” in Jewish Voice for Peace, Jewish Peace News(online), September 25, 2005; Katherine M.Metres, “As Evidence Mounts,Toll of Israeli Prisoner of War Massacres Grows,” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (online), February/March 1996; Roee Nahmias, “Egypt May Petition Hague over ‘Murder of POWs,’” Ynetnews.com , March 6, 2007; Roee Nahmias, “Former Meretz Leader Decries 1967 War Crimes,” Ynetnews.com ,March 3, 2007; Meron Rapoport, “Into the Valley of Death,” Ha'aretz ,February 13, 2007,以及Segev, 1967, pp.371—376。
〔98〕Avnery, “Crying Wolf?” CounterPunch.org , March 15, 2003; Robert Blecher, “Living on the Edge: The Threat of ‘Transfer’ in Israel and Palestine,” MERIP, Middle East Report Online 225(Winter 2002); Kimmerling,Politicide, p.28.也可参见 Noam Chomsky, Fateful Triangle: The United States,Israel and the Palestinians , 2nd ed.(Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 1999),p.97; Morris, Righteous Victims , pp.328—329; Tanya Reinhart,Israel/Palestine: How to End the War of 1948(New York: Seven Stories Press,2002), p.8; Tom Segev, “The Spirit of the King David Hotel,” Ha'aretz ,July 23, 2006,以及Segev, 1967, pp.400—412, 523—542.莫里斯报道说,就在1967年的战争之后,虽然有12万巴勒斯坦人申请返回他们的家园,但是以色列却只允许1.7万人回来。Righteous Victims , p.329.
〔99〕Avnery, “Crying Wolf?”; Ami Kronfeld, “Avnery on Ethnic Cleansing and a Personal Note,” in Jewish Voice for Peace, Jewish Peace News (online),March 17, 2003,以及 Metres, “As Evidence Mounts”。
〔100〕Danny Rubinstein, “Roads, Fences and Outposts Maintain Control in the Territories,” Ha'aretz , August 12, 2003.
〔101〕“Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Events at the Refugee Camps in Beirut,” February 7, 1983.这份报告一般以该委员会主席依茨哈克·卡亨(Yitzhak Kahan)的名字而被称为《卡亨委员会报告》。也可参见Morris, Righteous Victims , pp.542—549,以及 Shlaim, Iron Wall , pp.415—417。以色列士兵并未在萨巴拉和沙提拉难民营进行杀戮,杀戮行为是由同以色列结盟的黎巴嫩基督教民兵(长枪党人)进行的。在以色列国防军包围这两座巴勒斯坦难民营之后,沙龙“下令以色列国防军允许长枪党人进入那……两个难民营”。黎巴嫩长枪党人和巴勒斯坦人不仅是死敌,而且长枪党人执意要报复,因为他们的领导人刚刚被暗杀。他们肯定要屠杀巴勒斯坦人,卷入这次行动的以色列领导人知道或者应该知道这一点。一旦杀戮开始,以色列士兵就立即明白大屠杀正在发生,“但却根本不加以制止”。Shlaim, Iron Wall , p.416.虽然布什总统曾以“和平者”来欢呼以色列前总理阿里埃勒·沙龙,但关于对平民使用暴力的问题已困扰他多年。例如,在1953年,他指挥的部队袭击了约旦的凯比亚村,并杀害了69 位平民,其中2/3的人是妇女和儿童。根据本尼·莫里斯的说法:“沙龙和以色列国防军随后声称,村民们躲藏在地窖里和阁楼中,而当以色列军队炸毁这些建筑的时候,他们并不知道这种情况。但事实上,以色列军队是挨家挨户朝窗户和门里开火的;而且约旦的法医报告说,大部分死者死于子弹和弹片,而不是死于正在倒下的建筑或爆炸。在任何情况下,由中央协调指挥向涉及的单位发出的行动命令……已明确下令‘进行毁灭和最大限度的杀戮’。”Righteous Victims , p.278.也可参见Righteous Victims , pp.276—279, 294—295, 494—560;Benziman, Sharon ; Uzi Benziman, “The Cock's Arrogance,” Ha'aretz , June 15, 2003; Thomas L.Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem (New York: Anchor Books, 1990), chaps.6—7; Kimmerling, Politicide; Ze'ev Schiff and Ehud Ya'ari, Israel's Lebanon War , trans.Ina Friedman(New York: Simon & Schuster,1984), pp.250—285,以及Shlaim, Iron Wall , pp.90—92, 149—150, 384—423。
〔102〕Perry Anderson, “Scurrying Towards Bethlehem,” New Left Review 10(July—August 2001): 5.
〔103〕Morris, Righteous Victims, p.341.关于在被占领土上以色列如何对待巴勒斯坦人的详细交代,参见Amira Hass, Reporting from Ramallah: An Israeli Journalist in an Occupied Land , ed.and trans.Rachel Leah Jones(Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2003)。关于以色列使用酷刑,参见B'Tselem and Hamoked(Center for the Defense of the Individual), “Utterly Forbidden: The Torture and Ill-Treatment of Palestinian Detainees,” draft report, Jerusalem, April 2007; Glenn Frankel, “Prison Tactics a Longtime Dilemma for Israel,” Washington Post ,June 16, 2004; Ron Kampeas, “State Report Claims Israel Tortures Palestinian Detainees,” JTA.org , March 8, 2007; Public Committee Against Torture in Israel, “ Ticking Bombs': Testimonies of Torture Victims in Israel,” draft report, Jerusalem, May 2007; William F.Schulz, “An Israeli Interrogator,and a Tale of Torture,” letter to New York Times , December 27, 2004,以及Aviram Zino, “Report: High Court Permits Torture of Palestinians,”Ynetnews.com , May 30, 2007。以色列还被以色列人权组织贝泽雷姆指责利用巴勒斯坦儿童作为人体盾牌。参见“Israeli Soldiers Use Palestinian Minors and an Adult as Human Shields in the Operation in Nablus,” B'Tselem news release, Jerusalem,March 8, 2007。
〔104〕本段落和下一段落中的数据和所引用的内容来自“The Status of Palestinian Children During the Uprising in the Occupied Territories,” Excerpted Summary Material, Jerusalem, January 1990, in Journal of Palestine Studies 19, no.4(Summer 1990): 136—146。也可参见Joshua Brilliant, “Officer Tells Court Villagers Were Bound, Gagged and Beaten.‘Not Guilty’ Plea at ‘Break Bones’Trial,” Jerusalem Post , March 30, 1990; Joshua Brilliant, “‘Rabin Ordered Beatings,’ Meir Tells Military Court,” Jerusalem Post , June 22,1990; Jackson Diehl, “Rights Group Accuses Israel of Violence Against Children in Palestinian Uprising,” Washington Post , May 17, 1990; James A.Graff,“Crippling a People: Palestinian Children and Israeli State Violence,” Alif 13(1993); Morris, Righteous Victims , pp.586—595,以及 Ronald R.Stockton,“Intifada Deaths,” Journal of Palestine Studies 19, no.4(Summer 1990)。
〔105〕“Unbridled Force,” Ha'aretzeditorial, March 16, 2003.关于其他证据,参见Jonathan Cook, “Impunity on Both Sides of the Green Line,” MERIP,Middle East Report Online , November 23, 2005; “When Everything Is Permissible,” Ha'aretzeditorial, June 6, 2005; “It Can Happen Here,”Ha'aretzeditorial, November 22, 2004; Chris McGreal, “Snipers with Children in Their Sights,” Guardian , June 28, 2005; Chris McGreal, “Israel Shocked by Image of Soldiers Forcing Violinist to Play at Roadblock,” Guardian ,November 29, 2004; Greg Myre, “Former Israeli Soldiers Tell of Harassment of Palestinians,” New York Times , June 24, 2004; Reuven Pedatzur, “The Message to the Soldiers Was Clear,” Ha'aretz , December 13, 2004,以及 Conal Urquhart, “Israeli Soldiers Tell of Indiscriminate Killings by Army and a Culture of Impunity,” Guardian , September 6, 2005。
〔106〕Reuvan Pedatzur, “More than a Million Bullets,” Ha'aretz , June 29,2004,以及Clayton E.Swisher, The Truth About Camp David: The Untold Story About the Collapse of the Middle East Peace Process (New York: Nation Books,2004), pp.387—388。
〔107〕这些数字涵盖的范围包括2000年9月29日至2005年12月31日,并且是取自以色列人权组织贝泽雷姆2006年1月4日的新闻稿。
〔108〕Nathan Guttman, “‘It's a Terrible Thing, Living with the Knowledge That You Crushed Our Daughter,’” Ha'aretz , April 30, 2004; Joshua Hammer,“The Death of Rachel Corrie,” MotherJones.com , September/October 2003; Adam Shapiro, “Remembering Rachel Corrie,” Nation , March 18, 2004,以及 Tsahar Rotem, “British Peace Activist Shot by IDF Troops in Gaza Strip,” Ha'aretz ,April 11, 2003。
〔109〕大赦国际报告说,自2000年秋季第二次巴勒斯坦人起义开始以来,“以色列当局通常没能成功地调查以色列军队和定居者所进行的非法杀戮和对巴勒斯坦人其他杀戮的指控……虽然以色列军队已经杀死了数千巴勒斯坦人,其中许多都是非法杀戮,然而却几乎没有任何此类事件得到妥善的调查,而导致肇事者被绳之以法的此类事件则更少……在极少数案件中,虽然以色列当局对杀害巴勒斯坦人进行了严肃的调查,但随之进行的起诉一般却都不成功,或施行的刑罚与犯罪的严重程度不相称”。Amnesty International, “Road to Nowhere,” December 2006, pp.27—28.
〔110〕关于广泛使用不同人权团体报告来详细讨论以色列对巴勒斯坦人的行为问题,参见Finkelstein, Beyond Chutzpah , chaps.4—9。
〔111〕引自Molly Moore, “Ex-Security Chiefs Turn on Sharon,” Washington Post , November 15, 2003; “Ex-Shin Bet Heads Warn of ‘Catastrophe’ Without Peace Deal,” Ha'aretz , November 15, 2003。这些评论以以色列报纸《希伯来文报》2003年11月14日的一则采访为基础。标题为《我们严重关切以色列国命运》的采访副本,可登录全球政策论坛的网站www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/israelpalestine/2003/1118fate.htm。
〔112〕例如,以色列人权组织贝泽雷姆报告说:“(2006年)7月,以色列军队在加沙地带杀害了163名巴勒斯坦人,其中73人(48%)在被杀时并没有参与敌对行动。36名受害者是未成年人,20名受害者是妇女。以色列军队7月在约旦河西岸杀害了15名巴勒斯坦人。自从2002年4月以来,7月是巴勒斯坦受害者人数最高的一个月。”参见2006年8月3日的新闻稿,www.btselem.org/english/Press Releases/20060803.sap。大赦国际报告说,从2006年6月27日以色列国防军回到加沙的日子算起,一直到2006年11月底,以色列军队“杀害了400多名巴勒斯坦人,并在加沙地带使1500多名巴勒斯坦人受伤,其中包括许多没有武装的平民。被害者中约80人是儿童,并有300多名儿童受伤。在同一时期,来自加沙地带的巴勒斯坦武装团伙发射的火箭,在以色列南部打死打伤的以色列平民为2人和大约20人。” “Road to Nowhere,” pp.8—9.
〔113〕引自Rory McCarthy, “UN Condemns Massive Human Rights Abuses in Gaza Strip,” Guardian , November 21, 2006。关于以色列国防军对生活在加沙地带的巴勒斯坦人所造成的痛苦的描述,参见Amnesty International, “Road to Nowhere,”pp.7—13; Gideon Levy, “Gaza's Darkness,” Ha'aretz , September 3, 2006,以及OCHA, “The Humanitarian Monitor”。
〔114〕引自Bill Maxwell, “U.S.Should Reconsider Aid to Israel,”St.Petersburg Times (online), December 16, 2001。也可参见Ron Pundak, “From Oslo to Taba: What Went Wrong?” Survival 43, no.3(Autumn 2001): 37。
〔115〕事实上,如果以色列在1967年的六日战争中失败,并且一些阿拉伯统治者将其人口稳定在巴勒斯坦人所能接受的相同条件下,以色列人几乎肯定会用恐怖主义反对他们的压迫者,一些散居的犹太人肯定会被动员起来去帮助他们,正如爱尔兰美国人和海外泰米尔人都支持他们祖先的家园的恐怖团体一样。
〔116〕Morris, Righteous Victims , p.147, p.201.也可参见Lenni Brenner,The Iron Wall: Zionist Revisionism from Jabotinsky to Shamir (London: Zed Books, 1984), p.100,以及 Yehoshua Porath, The Palestinian Arab National Movement: From Riots to Rebellion , Vol.2, 1929—1939(London: Frank Cass,1977), p.238.莫里斯指出,在1948年的战争期间,主要的犹太恐怖主义团体“狡黠地在公交车站安置炸弹,其目的是杀害非战斗人员,包括妇女和儿童”。Birth Revisited ,p.80.
〔117〕J.Bowyer Bell, Terror Out of Zion: The Fight for Israeli Independence 1929—1949(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1996), pp.103—253;Johann Hari, “Israel Should Remember Its Own Terrorist' Origins,”Independent , July 24, 2006; Joseph Heller, The Stern Gang: Ideology,Politics and Terror, 1940—1949(Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1995); Bruce Hoffmann, The Failure of British Military Strategy Within Palestine, 1939—1947(Israel: Bar-Ilan University, 1983); Morris, Righteous Victims , pp.173—180,以及Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate , trans.Haim Watzman(New York: Henry Holt, 2000), chap.22。根据海姆·利文伯格(Haim Levenberg)的说法, 犹太恐怖主义1946年期间在巴勒斯坦导致了210名至429名平民的伤亡,其他219名伤亡者是警察和士兵。参见Levenberg, Military Preparations , p.72.
〔118〕Bell, Terror Out of Zion , pp.336—340.
〔119〕引自Chomsky, Fateful Triangle , pp.485—486,以及 Bell, Terror Out of Zion , p.340。关于沙米尔,参见Avishai Margalit, “The Violent Life of Yitzhak Shamir,” New York Review of Books , May 14, 1992。沙米尔还说,他“最值得骄傲的成就”是,“在我们的努力下,当我们能够充分团结一切地下团体来争取以色列解放的时候”。参见“Shamir: Lifetime of Activism”。
〔120〕Barzilai, “Brief History.”
〔121〕“Palestinian Authority,” New Republiceditorial, February 18, 2002,p.7.
〔122〕所谓的“克林顿参数”,其要点包括:(1)在领土问题上,巴勒斯坦人将得到加沙的100%、约旦河西岸的97%,以及从加沙到约旦河西岸的安全通道,这样可以使他们的国家正常生存。这里的97%涉及的是领土交换,剩余的3%他们将从以色列一边获得,这样以色列就将保留那些定居点,而他们可以将难民安置到从以色列获得的土地上。(2)在耶路撒冷问题上,犹太区归以色列,阿拉伯区归巴勒斯坦。巴勒斯坦人将对圣殿山和阿克萨清真寺拥有完全主权。(3)在难民问题上,难民将回到历史上的巴勒斯坦,以色列将维持其决定是否接收的主权。也就是说,以色列将吸收部分难民,但还要有限制,双方将就此限制进一步协商。但大部分难民将被允许回到巴勒斯坦。——译者注
〔123〕对戴维营以及随后6个月所发生的事情进行最客观描述的作品包括Charles Enderlin, Shattered Dreams: The Failure of the Peace Process in the Middle East,1995—2002, trans.Susan Fairfield(New York: Other Press, 2003); Jeremy Pressman, “Visions in Collision: What Happened at Camp David and Taba?”International Security 28, no.2(Fall 2003); Pundak, “From Oslo to Taba”;Jerome Slater, “What Went Wrong? The Collapse of the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process,” Political Science Quarterly 116, no.2(July 2001); Deborah Sontag,“Quest for Mideast Peace: How and Why It Failed,” New York Times , July 26,2001,以及Swisher, Truth About Camp David 。
〔124〕本段落以及下一段落中的数字取自Pressman, “Visions in Collision,”pp.16—18。由于巴拉克的提议还包括西岸地区之外1%的土地交换,因此一些评论家将他的提议描述为巴勒斯坦人对西岸地区92%而非91%的控制。
〔125〕在结束第一次世界大战的那些条约中,原来分配给英国的领土包括约旦河西岸和东岸。但英国1922年在东岸地区成立了外约旦(后来成为约旦)。此后,英国在巴勒斯坦的托管地包括构成今天以色列、加沙地带和西岸地区的领土。当我们指巴勒斯坦托管地的时候,我们所意指的是1922年之后的领土,其中以色列占78%,被占领土占22%。
〔126〕在对埃胡德·巴拉克有关戴维营所发生的事情的一次冗长采访进行描述的时候,本尼·莫里斯写道:“巴拉克说,但在西岸地区,除了从耶路撒冷通过马阿里·阿杜米姆定居点到约旦河狭长的以色列楔形地带外,巴勒斯坦人被许诺拥有一片相连贯的主权领土。”Benny Morris, “Camp David and After: An Exchange(1.An Interview with Ehud Barak),” New York Review of Books , June 13, 2002, p.44.也可参见一下作品中的地图Pundak, “From Oslo to Taba,” p.46。关于巴勒斯坦版本地图的样子,参见Orient House(Jerusalem), “Israel's Concessions,” Le Monde Diplomatique ,December 2000,以及标题为“Palestinian Characterization of the Final Proposal at Camp David,” in Dennis Ross, The Missing Peace: The Inside Story of the Fight for Middle East Peace (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004)。与巴拉克和巴勒斯坦人的说法相反,罗斯认为,戴维营的最终地图给予巴勒斯坦人在西岸地区对一块相连贯领土的控制权。 参见“Map Reflecting Actual Proposal at Camp David”, Ibid.然而,罗斯的说法似乎并不是真实的,因为甚至连巴拉克都承认,以色列对连接耶路撒冷与约旦河谷道路的控制,将使西岸地区一分为二。只要以色列控制那一具有战略意义的河谷,那么它需要到达那里的话就至少要有一条防护良好的连接道路。虽然巴拉克所设想的是一条从耶路撒冷向东的连接道路,但巴勒斯坦人所设想的显然是另一条从阿里埃勒定居点向东延伸到约旦河谷的连接道路。人们可能认为,当以色列人交出约旦河谷的时候,他们最终将放弃那些连接道路。然而,就像上面所指出的那样,并不存在以色列人将永远离开约旦河谷的保证;而即便他们曾经离开过约旦河谷,也不存在他们将放弃那些连接道路的保证。关于戴维营最终地图究竟为何持续混乱的最主要原因,乃是因为从来就没有画出过正式的地图,而且“在巴拉克的坚持下,任何书面记录都不被保存下来”。Jerome Slater, “The Missing Pieces in the Missing Peace,” Tikkun.org , May/June 2005.
〔127〕Pressman, “Visions in Collision,” p.18.
〔128〕Enderlin, Shattered Dreams , pp.243—251; Slater, “What Went Wrong?”,以及Sontag, “Quest for Mideast Peace”。
〔129〕引自“Norman Finkelstein & Former Israeli Foreign Minister Shlomo Ben-Ami Debate: Complete Transcript,” Democracy Now! radio and TV broadcast,February 14, 2006。
〔130〕也不存在任何有关阿拉法特发动第一次巴勒斯坦人起义的证据。参见Morris,Righteous Victims , p.561。莫里斯写道:“第一次巴勒斯坦人起义的主要活力,是加沙地带65万居民、西岸地区 90万居民,以及东耶路撒冷13万居民的民族愿望所遭受的挫折,因为这些人希望生活在一个巴勒斯坦国,而不是作为外国军队残酷统治下、不拥有自己国家的居民。” Ibid., p.562.
〔131〕Enderlin, Shattered Dreams , pp.284—285.
〔132〕引自Jeremy Pressman, “The Second Intifada: Background and Causes of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict,” Journal of Conflict Studies 22, no.2(Fall 2003): 116。也可参见Yezid Sayigh, “Arafat and the Anatomy of a Revolt,”Survival 43, no.3(Autumn 2001); Henry Siegman, “Partners for War,” New York Review of Books , January 16, 2003, p.24; Henry Siegman, “Sharon and the Future of Palestine,” New York Review of Books , December 2, 2004, p.12,以及 Slater, “Missing Pieces”。
〔133〕Sharm El-Sheikh Fact-Finding Committee, Final Report , April 30,2001, p.7.
〔134〕Ibid., p.5.
〔135〕Ian S.Lustick, “Through Blood and Fire Shall Peace Arise,”Tikkun.org , May/June 2002; Pressman, “The Second Intifada”; Mouin Rabbani,“A Smorgasbord of Failure: Oslo and the Al-Aqsa Intifada,” in The New Intifada: Resisting Israel's Apartheid , ed.Roane Carey(London: Verso,2001), pp.69—89; Sara Roy, “Why Peace Failed: An Oslo Autopsy,” Current History 101, no.651(January 2002),以及Sara Roy, “Ending the Palestinian Economy,” Middle East Policy 9, no.4(December 2002).
〔136〕Ben-Ami, Scars of War , p.264.
〔137〕Roy, “Why Peace Failed,” p.9.
〔138〕Ron Dudai, “Trigger Happy: Unjustified Shooting and Violation of the Open-Fire Regulations During the al-Aqsa Intifada,” B'Tselem draft report,March 2002.
〔139〕Yasser Arafat, “The Palestinian Vision of Peace,” New York Times ,February 3, 2002; Yasser Arafat, text of press conference, Geneva, December 14, 1988, in Journal of Palestine Studies 18, no.3(Spring 1989): 180—181;“Palestinians Affirm Israel's Right to Exist,” CNN.com , December 14, 1998;Pressman, “Visions in Collision,” pp.24—27; Yezid Sayigh, Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949—1993(New York: Oxford University Press, 1997),以及Jerome M.Segal, Creating the Palestinian State: A Strategy for Peace (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1989),chap.1.有人可能认为,阿拉法特对巴勒斯坦人返回家园权利的承诺,表明他依然在致力于摧毁以色列。但阿拉法特的确承认,以色列领导人绝对不会同意一项大量巴勒斯坦人回到以色列的和平决议。然而,与此同时,对阿拉法特来说,他却有充分的理由不在谈判开始之前就软化自己在巴勒斯坦人回归权问题上的立场,这样他就可以利用这个问题作为讨价还价的筹码。并不令人吃惊的是,有相当的证据表明,巴勒斯坦领导人(包括去世之前的阿拉法特)承认,为了达成最终协议,他们将不得不在此重要问题上作出重大让步。参见Akiva Eldar and David Landau, “Arafat: Israel Is Jewish; Won’t Cite Figure on Refugees,”Ha'aretz , June 18, 2004; Associated Press, “PA Minister Sha'ath:Palestinian Right of Return Is Negotiable,” Ha'aretz , August 20, 2003;Pressman, “Visions in Collision,” pp.28—33,以及M.J.Rosenberg,“Intractable Issue?” Weekly Opinion Column, Issue #144, Israel Policy Forum,Washington, DC, July 18, 2003。
〔140〕Akiva Eldar, “Popular Misconceptions,” Ha'aretz , June 11, 2004;Akiva Eldar, “While They Were Sleeping,” Ha'aretz , September 17, 2001;Danny Rubenstein, “The Stronger Side Creates Reality,” Ha'aretz , June 16,2004,以及 Emmanuel Sivan, “What the General Is Allowed,” Ha'aretz , June 14,2004。
〔141〕Pressman, “Visions in Collision,” p.25.
〔142〕“Official Palestinian Response to the Clinton Parameters(and letter to international community),” January 1, 2001,www.robat.scl.net/content/NAD/negotiations/clinton parameters/ param2.php.
〔143〕2001年1月3日美国驻以色列大使馆新闻处发表的“Excerpts: White House Spokesman on Clinton-Arafat Talks”; 2001年1月8日白宫新闻秘书办公室的副本“Clinton Speech on Mideast Peace Parameters(January 7, 2001)”,以及 Enderlin,Shattered Dreams , p.344。也可参见 Akiva Eldar, “The Battle for Public Opinion,” Ha'aretz , June 24, 2002, 以及Pressman, “Visions in Collision,”p.20,两者都明确表明,以色列对克林顿参数持严重的保留态度。
〔144〕Sontag, “Quest for Mideast Peace”,以及Enderlin, Shattered Dreams ,pp.349—350。
〔145〕Jeff Jacoby, “America Takes Side of Israel,” Boston Globe , March 26, 2006.布洛克的话引自Tony Czuczka, “Under Fire, Israel Lobby Rallies US Backers,” EUX.TV: The Europe Channel (online), March 10, 2007。也可参见Mart, Eye on Israel ,以及Martin Peretz, “Oil and Vinegar: Surveying the Israel Lobby,” New Republic , April 10, 2006。
〔146〕据历史学家米歇尔·马特(Michelle Mart)的观点,在冷战时期,“以色列人变得‘美国化’了”,而这种转变主要是出于“犹太-基督教一体”的意识。“The Cultural Foundations of the US/Israel Alliance,” Tikkun.org , November 11, 2006.
〔147〕Jodie T.Allen and Alec Tyson, “The U.S.Public's Pro-Israel History,”Pew Research Center, July 19, 2006; “Americans' Support for Israel Unchanged by Recent Hostilities,” Pew Research Center press release, July 26, 2006,以及 Robert Ruby, “A Six-Day War: Its Aftermath in American Public Opinion,”Pew Research Center, May 30, 2007。
〔148〕Allen and Tyson, “The U.S.Public's Pro-Israel History”; Pew Research Center for the People and the Press in Association with the Council on Foreign Relations, “America's Place in the World 2005: An Investigation of the Attitudes of American Opinion Leaders and the American Public About International Affairs,” November 2005, pp.11—12.
〔149〕“Conspiracy Theories and Criticism of Israel in Aftermath of Sept.11 Attacks,” Anti-Defamation League press release, November 1, 2001.
〔150〕Steven Kull(principal investigator), “Americans on the Middle East Road Map”(Program on International Policy Attitudes, University of Maryland,May 30, 2003), pp.9—11, 18—19.
〔151〕马提拉通讯集团(Marttila Communications Group)于2005年3月18日至25日、6月19日至23日为反诽谤联盟进行的调查,“American Attitudes Toward Israel and the Middle East”。
〔152〕Andrew Kohut, “American Views of the Mideast Conflict,” New York Times , May 14, 2002.
〔153〕关于以色列对第二次黎巴嫩战争的责任,参见2006年8月3日至6日由美国广播公司新闻节目——《华盛顿邮报》进行的民意调查,以及2006年7月21日至25日由哥伦比亚广播公司新闻节目——《纽约时报》进行的民意调查,这两项民意调查都能够在以下文献中找到“Israel, the Palestinians,” Polling Report.com .关于美国没有偏袒任何一方的问题,参见《今日美国报》和盖洛普共同进行的民意调查,Ibid,以及2006年8月11日至15日由左格比进行的民意调查,调查结果的描述参见“Zogby Poll: U.S.Should Be Neutral in Lebanon War,” Zogby International press release, August 17, 2006。