结论
毫无疑问,以色列从美国的支持中获益巨大,虽然有人也会说这种支持被以色列利用来追求那些并不符合其长远利益的政策——例如定居点的修建。同样清楚的是,美国从对以色列的援助中获得了一些战略价值,特别是在冷战期间。然而,这些好处并不能够完全解释美国为什么会在如此漫长的时期里一直愿意支持以色列,并且使之合理化。在冷战高峰的时候,虽然资助和保护以色列对于美国来说可能曾经是净资产——尽管这一观点并非一目了然,但是,当苏联解体和超级大国在中东的竞逐结束的时候,那一理论就消失了。今天,美国紧密地拥抱以色列——尤其是无论以色列采取什么样的政策,美国都愿意资助它——不是使得美国人更加安全或更加繁荣。相反,无条件地支持以色列正破坏美国同其他盟国之间的关系,使世人怀疑美国的智慧和道德观,帮助鼓励新一代的反美极端分子,使美国应对这个反复无常但至关重要地区所作出的努力复杂化。简而言之,美以之间基本上无条件的“特殊关系”,在战略理由上已不再站得住脚了。如果要找到令人信服的理论,我们必须将眼光投向他处。在下一章里,我们考察的是美国支持以色列的道德理由。
〔1〕A.F.K.Organski, The$ 36 Billion Bargain: Strategy and Politics in U.S.Assistance to Israel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Steven L.Spiegel, “Israel as a Strategic Asset,” Commentary, June 1983; Steven L.Spiegel, The Other Arab-Israeli Conflict: Making America's Middle East Policy from Truman to Reagan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985),以及Steven L.Spiegel, “U.S.-Israel Relations after the Gulf War,” Jerusalem Letter/Viewpoints 117, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, July 15, 1991。也可参见Steven Rosen, “The Strategic Value of Israel,” AIPAC Papers on U.S.-Israel Relations (Washington, DC: American Israel Public Affairs Committee,1982)。
〔2〕引自Ben Bradlee Jr., “Israel's Lobby,” Boston Globe, April 29,1984。
〔3〕参见http://aipac.org/Publications/AIPACAnalysesIssueBriefs/The_U.S.-Israel_Strategic_Part nership.pdf,以及http://aipac.org/Publications/AIPACAnalysesIssueBriefs/The_U.S.Israel_Relationship.pdf。
〔4〕Project for the New American Century, “Letter to President Bush on the War on Terrorism,” September 20, 2001,登录www.newamericancentury.org/Bushletter.htm,以及“Mission Statement,” Jewish Institute for National Secuity Affairs,登录www.jinsa.org/about/agenda/agenda.html。
〔5〕Martin Kramer, “The American Interest,” Azure 5767, no.26(Fall 2006): 24—25.
〔6〕Efraim Inbar, “Still a Strategic Asset for the US,” Jerusalem Post,October 8, 2006.
〔7〕并不令人感到吃惊的是,像施皮格尔、奥根斯基和克雷默这样的学者,他们对国内政治或游说集团影响美国对以色列的支持方面不予重视或加以理睬。奥根斯基认为:“美国关于以色列的政策决定,主要都是由总统和外交政策精英自行作出的,或者完全出于其自身的理由而作出的。”克雷默认为:“如果(以色列)游说集团的机构明天就消失了,美国和其他西方国家对以色列的支持将依然不会减弱。”施皮格尔将亲以色列的游说集团具有“巨大影响力”的想法,描述为一个“神话”。尽管存在这些主张,但是施皮格尔的研究却包含了大量以色列游说集团塑造关键决策者的认知和行为的例子。克雷默本身的职业生涯显示,他并不相信自己的观点,因为他将大量的时间和精力,致力于为美国支持以色列而进行辩护,并且攻击那些对此持怀疑态度的人。参见Organski, $ 36 Billion Bargain, 27;Spiegel, Other Arab-Israeli Conflict, p.386, p.388,以及Kramer, “American Interest,” p.31。
〔8〕学者们已经对杜鲁门的决定进行了大量的分析,从而在关于国内政治的重要性和他对犹太人想法的敏感性方面得出了各种结论。显然,在他寻求掌控巴勒斯坦的复杂局势时,虽然这并非影响他行为的唯一因素,但几乎所有的叙述都认为,在他的考虑中,美国犹太人的政治偏好——即将来临的1948年选举加大了这种偏好的分量——起到了非同一般的作用。参见Spiegel, Other Arab-Israeli Conflict, pp.47—48; Kenneth Ray Bain, The March to Zion: United States Policy and the Founding of Israel (College Station:Texas A & M Press, 1979), pp.195—197, p.202; Zvi Ganin, Truman, American Jewry, and Israel, 1945—1948(New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979),以及Michael B.Oren, Power, Faith and Fantasy: America in the Middle East 1776 to the Present (New York: Norton, 2007), p.484, pp.488—489, 499。
〔9〕引自Jerome Slater, “Ideology vs.the National Interest: Bush, Sharon,and U.S.Policy in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict,” Security Studies 12, no.1(Autumn 2002): 167。
〔10〕Warren Bass, Support Any Friend: Kennedy's Middle East and the Making of the U.S.-Israel Alliance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003),pp.148—149,以及David Schoenbaum, The United States and the State of Israel(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp.136—137。
〔11〕尼克松/基辛格战略的归纳总结参见William B.Quandt, Peace Process:American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict in 1967, 3rd ed.(Washington,DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2005), pp.69—70, 92—94; Henry Kissinger,White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), p.1279, 1289—1291,chap.10,以及Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown,1982), pp.195—205。
〔12〕以色列同意西方国家的飞机在1958年约旦危机期间飞越其领空;在叙利亚于1970年干预侯赛因国王同巴解组织的冲突后,以色列同意美国的请求而出面干预支持侯赛因国王。最后,约旦航空兵部队依靠自己的力量对叙利亚人进行了攻击,而叙利亚则在以色列用不着必须作出反应的情况下撤军。虽然美国官员感激以色列在这两件事情上的支持,但是艾伦·道蒂(Alan Dowty)却指出,以色列在解决1970年危机问题上的贡献,“最多只能算是次要的作用”。奈杰尔·艾什顿(Nigel Ashton)也认为,危机期间侯赛因将以色列看作潜在的威胁,美国官员错误地相信以色列是在帮助美国赢得冷战的胜利,而事实上这只是阿拉伯国家之间的一次斗争。Alan Dowty, Middle East Crisis: Decisionmaking in 1958,1970, and 1973(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), p.177;Nigel J.Ashton, “Pulling the Strings: King Hussein's Role During the Crisis of 1970 in Jordan,” International History Review 28, no.1(March 2006): 109,以及Quandt, Peace Process, pp.79—83。
〔13〕Dan Raviv and Yossi Melman, Friends in Deed: Inside the U.S.-Israel Alliance (New York: Hyperion, 1994), pp.66—68, 114—115.
〔14〕担任白宫行政管理和预算局军事援助科的长期负责人,有一个关于“战略资产”观点方面富有同情心但却持怀疑态度的分析,参见Harry Shaw, “Strategic Dissensus,”Foreign Policy 61(Winter 1985—1986)。
〔15〕据报道,作为对来自埃及的潜入者杀害一名骑自行车的以色列人这一事件的回应,本-古里安也把对加沙的袭击解释为鼓舞以色列士气、渲染他重新掌权,以及削弱纳赛尔不断增加的声望的一种方式。但是就像施罗姆·本-阿米所观察的那样:“(加沙袭击行动)加强了埃及致力于战争的战略,而不是相反。”Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli-Arab Tragedy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), p.77; Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (New York: Norton, 2001),pp.123—129; Michael Brecher, Decisions in Israel's Foreign Policy (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1975), pp.254—255,特别是注解1,以及E.L.M.Burns,Between Arab and Israeli (New York: Ivan Obolensky, 1963), p.20。在这一时期,叙利亚也有类似寻求得到苏联武器的动机,而且1955年12月发生的以色列的超强袭击,使叙利亚对援助更加渴望。Stephen M.Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca:Cornell University Press, 1987), p.62,特别是注释36。
〔16〕关于苏联同阿拉伯联盟之间吵吵闹闹的关系,参见Mohamed Heikal, The Sphinx and the Commissar: The Rise and Fall of Soviet Influence in the Middle East(New York: Harper, 1976); Alvin Z.Rubinstein, Red Star on the Nile: The Soviet-Egyptian Influence Relationship Since the June War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977),以及Ya'acov Roi, ed., From Encroachment to Involvement: A Documentary Study of Soviet Foreign Policy in the Middle East,1945—1973(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1974)。
〔17〕关于这一结果具有说服力的观点,参见Jerome Slater, “The Superpowers and an Arab-Israeli Political Settlement: The Cold War Years,” Political Science Quarterly 105, no.4(Winter 1990—1991)。
〔18〕“Kissinger Memorandum: ‘To Isolate the Palestinians,’” MERIP Reports no.96(May 1981): 24.这篇文章是有关1975年6月基辛格与所谓的克卢茨尼克团体(Klutznick Group)之间进行对话的一份备忘录,这个团体是一个由菲利普·克卢茨尼克(Philip Klutznick)组织起来的美国犹太裔领导人的集会,而菲利普·克卢茨尼克则是国际圣约信徒会的前主席和美国商务部前部长。参见Quandt, Peace Process, pp.103—104。
〔19〕Ussama Makdisi, “‘Anti-Americanism’ in the Arab World: An Interpretation of a Brief History,” Journal of American History 89, no.2(September 2002): 538—539.国会研究服务处的艾尔弗雷德·普拉多斯(Alfred Prados)同意这一观点,他指出:“作为中东地区迟到者的美国,19世纪和20世纪初在该地区享有比欧洲国家更好的形象。”“Middle East: Attitudes Toward the United States,”Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, December 31, 2001, p.2.
〔20〕Shibley Telhami, The Stakes: America and the Middle East (Boulder,CO: Westview, 2002), pp.50—59,以及Makdisi, “‘Anti-Americanism’ in the Arab World,” pp.548—550。
〔21〕Shaw, “Strategic Dissensus,” p.137.
〔22〕Moshe Dayan: Story of My Life (New York: William Morrow, 1976),pp.512—513.
〔23〕虽然“石油武器”所造成的总成本几乎肯定比这更高,因为它对通货膨胀、实际收入和生产力产生了长期的影响,并且也对投资、货币价格波动,以及其他因素产生了间接影响,但经济学家对这些影响的大小存在相当大的分歧。关于石油进口,参见Dominick Salvatore, “Petroleum Prices and Economic Performance in the G-7 Countries,”in Siamack Shojai and Bernard S.Katz, eds., The Oil Market in the 1980s: A Decade of Decline (New York: Praeger, 1992), p.94,以及Mancur Olson, “The Productivity Slowdown, the Oil Shocks and the Real Cycle,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 2, no.4(Fall 1988): pp.43—69。经济合作与发展组织国家所付出的代价,就是把它们的净进口石油账单由1973年的35亿美元推升到1974年的1000多亿美元。参见Robert J.Lieber, The Oil Decade: Conflict and Co operation in the West(New York: Praeger, 1983), p.21。国内生产总值是由联邦能源署和许多经济学家进行估算的。参见Edward N.Krapels, Oil Crisis Management: Strategic Stockpiling for International Security (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980),p.34,以及Fiona Venn, The Oil Crisis (London:Longman, 2002), pp.154—155。2000年的美元计算所利用的数据来自Louis D.Johnston and Samuel H.Williamson, “The Annual Real and Nominal GDP for the United States, 1790-Present,” Economic History Services, October 2005。
〔24〕引自Jeffrey Richelson, The U.S.Intelligence Community, 2nd ed.(Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1989), p.277。
〔25〕引自Roland Popp, “Stumbling Decidedly into the Six Day War,” Middle East Journal 60, no.2(Spring 2006): 300。汤姆·塞戈夫已确认,罗斯托的评估基本上是正确的。参见他的作品1967: Israel, the War and the Year That Transformed the Middle East, trans.Jessica Cohen(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007),pp.256—258。
〔26〕Shlomo Brom, “The War in Iraq: An Intelligence Failure,” Strategic Assessment (Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University)6, no.3(November 2003); “Selections from the Media, 1998—2003,” ibid., pp.17—19, Gideon Alon, “Report Slams Assessment of Dangers Posed by Libya, Iraq,”Ha'aretz, March 28, 2004; Dan Baron, “Israeli Report Blasts Intelligence for Exaggerating the Iraqi Threat,” JTA.org, March 28, 2004; Greg Myre,“Lawmakers Rebuke Israeli Intelligence Services over Iraq,” New York Times,March 29, 2004,以及James Risen, State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), pp.72—73。
〔27〕Kramer, “American Interest,” pp.24—25.
〔28〕肖还指出:“所有的以色列人十分清楚,即使在短暂而成功的战争中,一个只有400万人口的国家,其人口损失对这个国家所造成的负担。以色列根本缺乏人员来为超越其紧邻之外的代价高昂的军事冒险而作出牺牲。”“Strategic Dis-sensus,” p.130。
〔29〕引自Duncan L.Clarke, Daniel B.O'Connor, and Jason D.Ellis, Send Guns and Money: Security Assistance and U.S.Foreign Policy (Westport, CT: Praeger,1997), p.173。另外一名国防部官员指出,除了形式上的作用外,以色列“邻近波斯湾并不足以成为那里真正有用的战斗基地。如果发生任何真正的军事意外事件,我们需要依靠更加接近那里的地方,而这就是为什么我们正努力要在阿曼设立基地的原因”。以色列的贡献将局限在维修和可能的医院设施上。参见Joe Stork, “Israel as a Strategic Asset,”in MERIP Reports no.105, Reagan Targets the Middle East (May 1982), p.12。
〔30〕Shaw, “Strategic Dissensus,” p.133.
〔31〕参见最渴望意志行动(Operation Earnest Will)的讨论,登录www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/earnest_will.htm,以及Dilip Hiro, The Longest War: The Iran-Iraq Military Conflict (New York: Routledge, 1991),pp.129—132, 166, 186—191, 202—204。
〔32〕“Kissinger Memorandum,” p.25.
〔33〕1980年竞选期间,里根曾告诉美国犹太人报业协会说:“以色列对美国来说是战略性的资产,(而且)我相信我们必须有具体表达这一立场的政策。”参见Stork,“Israel as a Strategic Asset,” p.3,以及Ronald Reagan, An American Life(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), p.410。
〔34〕关于后一个因素,费尔德曼说道:“这种现象最明显的表现是有影响力的美国以色列公共事务委员会的独特作用。”参见费尔德曼的作品The Future of U.S.-Israel Strategic Cooperation (Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1996), pp.5—6。
〔35〕Bernard Lewis, “Rethinking the Middle East,” Foreign Affairs 71,no.4(Fall 1992): pp.110—111; Bernard Reich, Securing the Covenant: United States-Israeli Relations After the Cold War (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995),p.123,以及Robert J.Art, A Grand Strategy for America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003), p.137。
〔36〕所引用的沃尔德格雷夫的话参见David Kimche, The Last Option: After Nasser, Arafat, and Saddam Hussein, the Quest for Peace in the Middle East(New York: Scribner, 1991), p.236; Lewis, “Rethinking the Middle East,”pp.110—111。2003年第二次海湾战争期间,历史得以重演。美国需要召集一个大联盟,以便使其预防性战争显得合法,因此,它做了大量的工作来说服一系列国家向“志愿者联盟”(coalition of the willing)派军队。但以色列却不在这些国家的行列之中,即使以色列领导人及其民众坚决支持这场战争。我们在第八章中花了更长的篇幅来讨论这个问题。
〔37〕根据来自美国国家防止恐怖主义纪念协会(Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism)数据库的数据,登录www.tkb.org。
〔38〕虽然丹尼尔·本杰明和史蒂文·西蒙已表明,克林顿政府中的部分成员将反恐置于高度优先的地位,但他们也证明在20世纪90年代要优先进行反恐是多么困难。用他们的话来说:“这项工作之所以困难,是因为一个从未将恐怖主义看作是最高级别威胁的政府,既没有以那种方式来对付恐怖主义的组织机构,也没有以那种方式来对付恐怖主义的法律。在许多机构中,对付恐怖主义问题的办公室是死气沉沉的官僚政治场所,其负责人根本不具备与他们级别相同的那些同事一样的分量,因为那些同事处理的以地理区域为单位的问题或像军备控制这样引人注目的问题。”布什政府上任之初并没有把恐怖主义置于高度优先地位这件事情也是具有启迪性的。参见Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror (New York: Random House, 2002), p.221, pp.327—329,以及Richard
A.Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror (New York: Free Press, 2004), pp.227—236。
〔39〕换言之,美国国防预算超过这四个国家合起来的经济规模的一半(以购买力平价为基础进行衡量)。这些数字来自The Military Balance 2000—2001(London:International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2001),以及Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook 2000(online)。
〔40〕对美国的伊拉克政策和伊朗政策,以及更一般意义上的美国对“无赖国家”政策的精彩分析,参见Robert Litwak, Rogue States and U.S.Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2000)。虽然共和党控制的国会基本上支持更为咄咄逼人的伊朗政策和伊拉克政策,并且偶尔投票支持严厉制裁和各种反对这些政权的流亡者,但是克林顿政府却从未对政权更迭作出过严肃的努力。
〔41〕Bruce W.Jentleson and Christopher A.Whytock, “Who ‘Won’ Libya? The Force-Diplomacy Debate and Its Implications for Theory and Policy,”International Security 30, no.3(Winter 2005—2006); Ronald Bruce St.John,“Libya Is Not Iraq: Preemptive Strikes, WMD, and Diplomacy,” Middle East Journal 58, no.3(Summer 2004),以及Flynt Leverett, “Why Libya Gave Up on the Bomb,” New York Times, January 23, 2004。
〔42〕Litwak, Rogue States and U.S.Foreign Policy, pp.168—169.
〔43〕沙龙的话引自William Safire, “Israel or Arafat,” New York Times,December 3, 2001;不具名官员的话引自Robert G.Kaiser, “Bush and Sharon Nearly Identical on Mideast Policy,” Washington Post, February 9, 2003。也可参见Nathan Guttman, “A Marriage Cemented by Terror,” Salon.com, January 24,2006。
〔44〕“Netanyahu Speech Before the U.S.Senate,” April 10, 2002,登录www.netanyahu.org/netspeacinse.html,以及Benjamin Netanyahu, “Three Principles Key to Defeat of Terrorism,” Chicago Sun-Times, January 7, 2002。
〔45〕Ehud Barak, “Democratic Unity Is the Only Answer to Terrorism,”Times (London), September 13, 2001.
〔46〕“Entire Text of Olmert Speech to Congress,” Jerusalem Post, May 24,2006.
〔47〕Robert Satloff, “Israel's Not the Issue, Pass It On,” Los Angeles Times, October 10, 2001.
〔48〕“Peace Can Only Come Once the US Gives Israel the Green Light to Eliminate Hamas and the Hezbollah,” 2001年12月3日美国参议院查尔斯·舒默办公室新闻稿,登录www.senate.gov/~schumer/1-Senator%20Schumer%20Website%20Files/pressroom/press_releases/PR00766.html。
〔49〕众议院392号决议(2002年5月2日),以及参议院247号决议(2002年4月22日)。
〔50〕根据一份报告的说法:“即使发言者把阿拉法特挑出来作为一个亟待解决的问题,他们也只是将他描述为一个广泛得多的‘力量联盟’——其中有伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚——中的一个伙伴而已……关于平衡这些威胁的问题,政权更迭则是优先的选择。”参见Dana Hearn, “AIPAC Policy Conference, 21—23 April 2002,” Journal of Palestine Studies 31, no.4(Summer 2002): pp.67—68。
〔51〕“Letter to President Bush on Israel, Arafat, and the War on Terrorism,” Project for the New American Century, April 3, 2002,登录www.newamericancentury.org/Bushletter-040302.htm。公开信的主要作者威廉·克里斯托尔,在2006年以色列进行的黎巴嫩战争期间提出了同样的观点,他写道:“叙利亚和伊朗是以色列的敌人,他们也是美国的敌人,”并得出结论说,“这也是我们的战争。” William Kristol, “It's Our War,” Weekly Standard, July 24, 2006.(https://www.daowen.com)
〔52〕梅佐和西尔的话引自Susan Taylor Martin, “Experts Disagree on Dangers of Syria,” St.Petersburg Times (online), November 3, 2002。也可参见Benjamin and Simon, Age of Sacred Terror, p.194。
〔53〕在其他的许多研究中,可参见Tanya Reinhart, Israel/Palestine: How to End the War of 1948, expanded 2nd ed.(New York: Seven Stories Press, 2005),以及Tanya Reinhart, The Road Map to Nowhere: Israel/Palestine Since 2003(London: Verso, 2006)。
〔54〕就像罗伯特·佩普(Robert Pape)令人信服地表明的那样,自杀式恐怖主义是为一系列各种不同的政治运动所采取的一种策略,这种策略通常是在他们居于弱势地位,并试图击败恐怖分子认为从事非法占领的民主敌手的情况下而采用的。参见Robert A.Pape,Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House,2005)。
〔55〕Satloff, “Israel's Not the Issue”; Kramer, “American Interest,”p.29; Norman Podhoretz, “Israel Isn't the Issue,” Wall Street Journal,September 20, 2001; Norman Podhoretz, “World War IV: How It Started, What It Means, and Why We Have to Win,” Commentary, September 2004; Andrea Levin,“Don't Scapegoat Israel,” Boston Globe, October 6, 2001,以及Dennis Ross,“Bin Laden's Terrorism Isn't About the Palestinians,” New York Times, October 12, 2001。其他在这一点上对我们最初的文章作出回应的有Alan Dershowitz,“Debunking the Newest—and Oldest—Jewish Conspiracy: A Reply to the Mearsheimer-Walt ‘Working Paper,’” John F.Kennedy School of Government Faculty Research Working Paper, Harvard University, April 2006, 29; Marc Landy, “Zealous Realism: Comments on Mearsheimer and Walt,” Forum (Berkeley Electronic Press)4, issue 1, article 6(2006),以及Steven Simon, “Here's Where ‘The Israel Lobby’ Is Wrong,” Daily Star, May 4, 2006。
〔56〕Abdel Mahdi Abdallah, “Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World:A Socio-Political Perspective,” Middle East Review of International Affairs 7,no.4(December 2003).
〔57〕1948年访问美国期间,库特布形成了他对美国的印象,他后来被埃及政府于1966年处决。参见Y.Haddad, “Sayyid Qutb: Ideologue of Islamic Revival,” in Voices of Resurgent Islam, ed.John Esposito(New York: Oxford University Press,1983), pp.67—98。
〔58〕引自Makdisi, “‘Anti-Americanism’ in the Arab World,” p.555。
〔59〕Steve Coll, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan,and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001(New York:Penguin Press, 2004), pp.250—251, 273,以及“Transcript: The Yasin Interview,” 60 Minutes, June 2, 2002,登录www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/06/02/60minutes/printable510847.shtml。
〔60〕Anonymous[Michael Scheuer], Through Our Enemies' Eyes: Osama bin Laden,Radical Islam, and the Future of America (Washington, DC: Brassey's, 2002),p.87.
〔61〕引自Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11(New York: Knopf, 2006), pp.75—76。
〔62〕Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden, ed.Bruce Lawrence(London: Verso, 2005), p.4.
〔63〕Benjamin and Simon, Age of Sacred Terror, pp.140—141.
〔64〕Osama bin Laden, “From Somalia to Afghanistan”(March 1997), in Lawrence, Messages to the World, p.46.至于其他“9·11”以前对美国支持以色列的谴责,以及对美国与以色列沆瀣一气的指责,参见同一卷中的以下节选:“Declaration of Jihad”(August 23, 1996), p.30; “World Islamic Front”(February 23,1998), pp.60—61,以及“A Muslim Bomb”(December 1998), pp.66—70。也可参见“Jihad against Jews and Crusaders”和“New Osama bin Laden Video Contains Anti-Israel and Anti-American Statements,” on the Anti-Defamation League website,登录www.adl.org/terrorism_america/bin_l_print.asp。
〔65〕Max Rodenbeck, “Their Master's Voice,” New York Review of Books,March 9, 2006, p.8.被评论的书包括Peter L.Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know:An Oral History of al Qaeda's Leader (New York: Free Press, 2006),以及Lawrence, Messages to the World。
〔66〕“9·11”委员会也称“有关恐怖分子袭击美国的全国委员会”(National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States),该委员会于2002年11月27日通过国会立法和布什总统签署该项立法而得以成立。委员会各包括5名共和党人和民主党人,主席是新泽西州前州长、共和党人托马斯·基恩(Thomas Kean),副主席是前众议院议员、民主党人李·H.汉密尔顿(Lee H.Hamilton)。委员会的目的是要“对有关2001年9月11日的袭击情形进行全面彻底的描述”。在有关这次袭击的最终报告发表之后,该委员会于2004年8月21日解散。——译者注
〔67〕“Outline of the 9/11 Plot,” Staff Statement no.16, National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, June 16, 2004, p.18.也可参见Nathan Guttman, “Al-Qaida Planned Attacks during PM's Visit to White House,” Ha'aretz, June 17, 2004,以及Marc Perelman, “Bin Laden Aimed to Link Plot to Israel,” Forward, June 25, 2004。
〔68〕“Outline of the 9/11 Plot,” p.18.
〔69〕Ibid., 4.
〔70〕The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (New York: Norton, 2004), p.145,p.147.
〔71〕关于巴勒斯坦人的第一次起义,参见Joost R.Hiltermann, Behind the Intifada: Labor and Women's Movements in the Occupied Territories (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1991); Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation, ed.Zachary Lockman and Joel Beinin(Boston: South End Press,1989); Benny Morris, Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881—2001(New York: Vintage, 2001), chap.12,以及Ze'ev Schiff and Ehud Ya'ari, Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising, Israel's Third Front,ed.and trans.Ina Friedmann(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991)。
〔72〕引自Michael Slackman, “As Crowds Demand Change, Lebanese Premier Is Puzzled,” New York Times, December 11, 2006。
〔73〕Pew Global Attitudes Project, A Year After Iraq War: Mistrust of America in Europe Even Higher, Muslim Anger Persists (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, March 16, 2004), p.21.
〔74〕Pew Global Attitudes Project, What the World Thinks in 2002(Washington,DC: Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, December 2002), p.54.
〔75〕Shibley Telhami, The Stakes: America and the Middle East (Boulder,CO: Westview Press, 2002), p.96.也可参见Ami Eden, “9/11 Commission Finds Anger at Israel Fueling Islamic Terrorism Wave,” Forward, July 30, 2004。
〔76〕马科蒂希继续写道:“有关阿拉伯世界中的反美主义的叙述,甚至连开始传达出阿拉伯人对美国愤怒的本质、深度,以及绝对的强度都不能够做到,因为此类叙述并没有诚实地表达阿拉伯人对以色列的理解。”“‘Anti-Americanism’ in the Arab World,”p.552。
〔77〕“Impressions of America 2004: How Arabs View America, How Arabs Learn About America”(Washington, DC: Zogby International, June 2004), pp.3—5;“Five Nation Survey of the Middle East”(Washington, DC: Arab-American Institute/Zogby International, December 2006), p.4,以及Prados, “Middle East: Attitudes Toward the United States,” p.8。
〔78〕引自Peter Ford, “Why Do They Hate Us?” Christian Science Monitor,September 27, 2001。
〔79〕Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Strategic Communication (Washington, DC: Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, September 2004), p.40,以及9/11 Commission Report, p.376。
〔80〕“Impressions of America 2004: A Six Nation Survey”(Washington, DC:Zogby International, 2004); Shibley Telhami, “Arab Public Opinion: A Survey in Six Countries,” San Jose Mercury (online), March 16, 2003; John Zogby,The Ten Nation Impressions of America Poll (Utica, NY: Zogby International,April 11, 2002),以及Shibley Telhami, “Arab Attitudes Towards Political and Social Issues, Foreign Policy, and the Media,” a public opinion poll by the Anwar Sadat Chair of Peace and Development, University of Maryland, and Zogby International, October 2005,登录www.bsos.umd.edu/sadat/pub/survey-2005.htm。
〔81〕Changing Minds, Winning Peace: A New Strategic Direction for U.S.Public Diplomacy in the Arab and Muslim World,这是阿拉伯及穆斯林世界顾问小组的报告中的第18页,该报告于2003年10月1日提交给美国众议院拨款委员会,也可参见Pew Global Attitudes Project, Views of a Changing World 2003: War with Iraq Further Divides Global Publics (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, June 3, 2003)。
〔82〕Warren Hoge, “U.N.Distances Itself from an Envoy's Rebuke of Israel and the U.S.,” New York Times, April 24, 2004; “Brahimi's Israel Comments Draw Annan, Israeli Fire,” Ha'aretz, April 23, 2004,以及“Egyptian Prez:Arabs Hate US,”登录www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/04/20/world/printable612831.shtml。
〔83〕David Shelby, “Jordan's King Abdullah Stresses Urgency of Mideast Peace Process,” March 7, 2007,登录www.usinfo.state.gov。
〔84〕“President Discusses War on Terror and Operation Iraqi Freedom,”Cleveland, Ohio(White House, Office of the Press Secretary, March 20, 2006).
〔85〕Charles Krauthammer, “The Tehran Calculus,” Washington Post,September 15, 2006.也可参见Bernard Lewis, “August 22,” Wall Street Journal,August 8, 2006。关于两位以色列学者的类似观点,参见Yossi Klein Halevi and Michael B.Oren, “Contra Iran,” New Republic, February 5, 2007。关于萨达姆·侯赛因也是失去理智和不受威吓的观点,参见Kenneth M.Pollack, The Threatening Storm: The Case for Invading Iraq (New York: Random House, 2002)。
〔86〕虽然中国在获得核弹之前,毛泽东确实说了一些不在乎核武器的言论,但是这些声明几乎肯定是想要阻止其他核大国试图向北京施压。参见Alice Langly Hsieh, Communist China's Strategy in the Nuclear Era (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1962)。腊斯克的观点见诸The China Reader, Vol.3: Communist China, ed.Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell(New York: Vintage, 1967), p.508。关于苏联,经典的陈述是Richard Pipes, “Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Can Fight and Win a Nuclear War,” Commentary, July 1977。
〔87〕关于英国外交官的信件,参见“Doomed to Failure in the Middle East,”Guardian, April 27, 2004。也可参见Nicholas Blanford, “US Moves Inflame Arab Moderates,” Christian Science Monitor, April 26, 2004; Rupert Cornwell,“Allies Warn Bush That Stability in Iraq Demands Arab-Israeli Deal,”Independent, June 10, 2004; Glenn Kessler and Robin Wright, “Arabs and Europeans Question ‘Greater Middle East’ Plan,” Washington Post, February 22,2004,以及Robin Wright and Glenn Kessler, “U.S.Goals for Middle East Falter,”Washington Post, April 21, 2004。查看美国的信函可登录www.wrmea.com/letter_to_bush.html。
〔88〕Ze'ev Schiff, “Fitting into America's Strategy,” Ha'aretz, August 1,2003.
〔89〕Jay Solomon, “Religious Divide: To Contain Iran, U.S.Seeks Help from Arab Allies,” Wall Street Journal, November 24, 2006.
〔90〕James A.Baker III and Lee H.Hamilton, co-chairs, The Iraq Study Group Report (Washington, DC: U.S.Institute of Peace, December 2006), p.39.
〔91〕关于“拉冯事件”,参见Schoenbaum, The United States and the State of Israel, pp.107—108。关于以色列与伊朗进行的各种交易,参见“Israel-Iran Oil Deal Disclosed and Tied to Captives,” New York Times, December 20, 1989; Youssef M.Ibrahim, “Oil Sale Disclosure Upsets Israeli-Iranian Contacts,” New York Times, December 21, 1989; Bishara Bahbah, “Arms Sales: Israel's Link to the Khomeini Regime,” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (online), January 1987,以及Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, The Israeli Connection: Who Israel Arms and Why (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), pp.3—22, 108—175。虽然作为臭名昭著的伊朗门武器丑闻事件的一部分,里根政府确实曾向伊朗提供过武器,但这一秘密行动基本上是试图争取释放美国在黎巴嫩的人质;而一旦曝光,这一行动就被广泛地认为与范围更广的美国利益相左。
〔92〕引自Duncan L.Clarke, “Israel's Unauthorized Arms Transfers,”Foreign Policy 99(Summer 1995): 94。
〔93〕Richard C.Stiener, “Foreign Military Aid to Israel: Diversion of U.S.Funds and Circumvention of U.S.Program Restrictions,”在众议院能源商务委员会监控和调查小组委员会上的作证(Washington, DC: U.S.General Accounting Office,October 1993), p.22。也可参见Edward T.Pound, “Israel Is Impeding U.S.Dotan Probe, Documents Show,” Wall Street Journal, July 29, 1992,以及Edward T.Pound, “U.S.Says Israel Withheld Help in Dotan Probe,” Wall Street Journal,July 25, 1992。
〔94〕关于这场旷日持久的争论,参见Aluf Benn and Amnon Barzilai, “Pentagon Official Wants Yaron Fired,” Ha'aretz, December 16, 2004; Caroline B.Glick and Arieh O'Sullivan, “Pentagon Denies It Wants Yaron Dismissed,” Jerusalem Post, December 16, 2004; Nina Gilbert, “Yaron Won't Give Info on Arms Sales to China,” Jerusalem Post, December 30, 2004; “Israeli, U.S.Talks on Weapons Deals with China End Without Result,” Ha'aretz, June 29, 2005; Marc Perelman, “Spat Over Sales of Weapons Chilling Ties Between Jerusalem and Beijing,” Forward, December 24, 2004; Marc Perelman, “China Crisis Straining U.S.-Israel Ties,” Forward, August 5, 2005; Marc Perelman,“Israel Miffed over Lingering China Flap,” Forward, October 7, 2005; Ze'ev Schiff, “U.S.-Israel Crisis Deepens over Defense Exports to China,” Ha'aretz,July 27, 2005,以及Janine Zacharia, “‘Something Wrong’ in US-Israeli Military Ties as Split Deepens on China,” Jerusalem Post, December 26, 2004。
〔95〕引自Zacharia, “US-Israeli Military Ties”。
〔96〕引自Duncan L.Clarke, “Israel's Economic Espionage in the United States,” Journal of Palestine Studies 27, no.4(Summer 1998): 21。也可参见Bob Drogin and Greg Miller, “Israel Has Long Spied on U.S.Say Officials,” Los Angeles Times, September 3, 2004; “FBI Says Israel a Major Player in Industrial Espionage,” Jewish Bulletin (online), January 16, 1998; Mark,“Israeli-United States Relations,” November 9, 2004, pp.14—15,以及Joshua Mitnick, “U.S.Accuses Officials of Spying,” Washington Times, December 16,2004。
〔97〕新闻记者西摩·赫什声称,为了使苏联犹太人获得出境签证,以色列将一些窃取到的情报给了苏联。虽然其他人曾对这种看法提出挑战,但是赫什却坚持自己的看法。Seymour M.Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1991), pp.285—305,以及Seymour M.Hersh,“Why Pollard Should Never Be Released,” New Yorker, January 18, 1999.
〔98〕关于这些事件,参见Edward T.Pound and David Rogers, “Inquiring Eyes:An Israeli Contract with a U.S.Company Leads to Espionage,” Wall Street Journal,January 17, 1992。
〔99〕关于富兰克林事件的总体概述,参见Jeffrey Goldberg, “Real Insiders: A Pro-Israel Lobby and an F.B.I.Sting,” New Yorker, July 4, 2005。罗森和维斯曼否认了这些指控,而且这个案子依然悬而未决。