四、结论
本文考察了美德法理学的一个部分——以美德为中心的裁判理论。其目的在于要澄清这样一个观点,即一套裁判理论可以是以美德为中心的;同时主张一套以美德为中心的理论是合理的。在两种语境中,都说明了以美德为中心的解释其优势之所在。当正义要求一项判决符合法律规则,以美德为中心的理论合乎常识,但同时解释了规则适用中实践判断发挥的作用,以及法律分歧的现象。当正义要求超越规则,以美德为中心的理论解释和证立了衡平的实践(practice of equity)。美德法理学完成了我们希望一套裁判理论能处理的工作。
Virtue Jurisprudence:A Virtue-Centred Theory of Judging
Lawrence B.Solum
【Abstract】“Virtue jurisprudence” is a normative and explanatory theory of law that utilises the resources of virtue ethics to answer the central questions of legal theory.Themain focus of this essay is the development of a virtue-centred theory of judging.The exposition of the theory begins with exploration of defects in judicial character,such as corruption and incompetence.Next,an account of judicial virtue is introduced.This includes judicialwisdom,a form of phronesis,or sound practical judgement.A virtue-centred account of justice is defended against the argument that theories of fairness are prior to theories of justice.The centrality of virtue as a character trait can be drawn outby analysing the virtue of justice into constituentelements.These include judicial impartiality(even-handed sympathy for those affected by adjudication) and judicial integrity(respect for the law and concern for its coherence).The essay argues that a virtue-centred theory accounts for the role that virtuous practical judgement plays in the application of rules to particular fact situations.Moreover,it contends that a virtue-centred theory of judging can best account for the phenomenon of lawful judicial disagreement.Finally,a virtue-centred approach best accounts for the practice of equity,departure from the rules based on the judge's appreciation of the particular characteristics of individual fact situations.
【Keywords】Ethics,Justice,Jurisprudence,Law,Virtue
【注释】
[1]本文译自Lawrence Solum,“Virtue Jurisprudence:A Virtue-Centred Theory of Judging”,Metaphilosophy,Vol.34,Nos.1/2,(2003),pp.178213.注释有删改,经授权发表。
[2]作者简介:劳伦斯·索伦,美国乔治敦大学卡尔马克·沃特豪斯法学教授。
[3]译者简介:胡烯,西南政法大学博士后研究人员,研究方向为西方法理学、法社会学。
[4]校者简介:王凌皞,浙江大学光华法学院副教授,研究方向为法哲学、司法理论。
[5]参见Linda Zagzebski,Virtues of the Mind:An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996。同样参见Fairweather and Zagzebski,Fairweather,Abrol,and Linda Zagzebski,editors,Virtue Epistemology:Essays on Epistemic Virtue and Responsibility.Oxford:Oxford University Press,2001。
[6]美德伦理学的文献非常多。我自己的研究也特别受以下当代作品的影响:Philippa Foot,Virtues and Vices.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1978,2001; Rosalind Hursthouse,On Virtue Ethics.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999; Alasdair MacLntyre,After Virtue:A Study in Moral Theory.London:Duckworth,1984;and Nancy Sherman,The Fabric of Character.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1989.See also Roger Crisp,and Michael Slote,editors.Virtue Ethics:Oxford Readings in Philosophy.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1997; Daniel Statman,editor,Virtue Ethics:A Critical Reader.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press,1997;and Roger Crisp,editor,How Should One Live?:Essays on the Virtues.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1996。
[7]参见Roger Crisp,and Michael Slote,editors.Virtue Ethics:Oxford Readings in Philosophy.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1997,“前言”。
[8]“美德法理学”这一表述是依照“美德伦理学”和“美德知识论”构词方式组合起来的。现今的美德法理学非常类似于早期的“美德政治学”。参见Roger Crisp,and Michael Slote,editors.Virtue Ethics:Oxford Readings in Philosophy.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1997,“前言”。
[9]我对亚里士多德美德理论的理解来自多种文献。参见诸如,Sarah Broadie,Ethics with Aristotle.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1991; W.F.R.Hardie,Aristotle's Ethical Theory.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1980; Richard Kraut,Aristotle on the Human Good.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1989; Aristotle:Political Philosophy.Oxford:Clarendon Press,2002。同时参见A.O.Rorty,editor,Essays on Aristotle's Ethics.Berkeley:University of California Press,1980。我同样受惠于Gavin Lawrence在加利福尼亚大学洛杉矶分校的亚里士多德伦理学课程,以及Christine Korsgaard在哈佛大学的亚里士多德伦理学研讨班。
[10]See generally Jeremy Bentham,A Fragment on Government,edited by J.H.Burns,Ross Harrison,and Herbert L.Hart.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1988.An Introduction to the PrinciplesofMoralsand Legislation,edited by J.H.Burns,Herbert L.Hart,and J.Rosen,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996.
[11]法律实证主义与法的规范性批判之间的关系是有争议的。Frederick Schauer(Frederick Schauer,“Positivism as Pariah.” In The Autonomy of Law:Essays on Legal Positivism,edited by Robert P.George.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1996)阐明了这样的观点,即法律实证主义通过明确区分法律与道德,使对法律的道德批判成为可能。Julie Dickson(Julie Dickson,Evaluation and Legal Theory.Oxford:Hart Publishing,2001)批评了这一主张,因为它包含了“愿望主导的思考”(wishful thinking)。迪克逊认为法律实证主义是关于“法律是什么”的理论,也即确定法律这一社会实践的必要和充分条件的理论。因此她主张,法律实证主义所带来的有利结果,不能视为接受法律实证主义作为一种关于法律性质的理论主张。对法律实证主义的接受,必须以事实上它是否抓住了法律的必要和充分条件为依据;任何有利结果都只是副现象。对这一问题的讨论超出了本文的范围,但一个简要的观察是例外,迪克逊的主张假定“法”是一种社会实践,它的性质由构成其概念结构的必要和充分条件所决定。然而,如果法律是一种社会实践,那么其本质就是可争议性,可修改性,由此可见,法律实证主义确实是规范性的立场,也不应指责肖尔的理论是一种“愿望主导的思考”。
[12]偏好——满足功利主义为绝大多数规范法经济学提供了道德基础。一般性的评述,参见Louis Kaplow,and Stephen Shavell,Fairness VersusWelfare.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2002。
[13]参见诸如David C.Bricker,“A Kantian Argument for Native American Cultural Survival.” U.of DetroitMercy Law Review 76:789ff,1999;Alice Haemmerli,“WhoseWho?The Case for a Kantian Right of Publicity.” Duke Law Journal 49:383ff,1999;Robert F.Housman,“Kantian Approach to Trade and the Environment.”49 Washington and Lee Law Review 49:1373ff,1992;Richard B.Lillich,“Kant and the Current Debate Over Humanitarian Lntervention.” Journal Transnational Law and Policy 6:397,1997;R.George Wright,“Treating Persons as Ends in Themselves:The Legal Lmplications of a Kantian Principle.”University of Richmond Law Review 36:271ff,2002.也参见1987康德法学理论研讨会。
[14]一般性地运用罗尔斯的理论,以及以各种形式运用它的原初状态,在法学界已经司空见惯。参见诸如Thomas H.Jackson,The Logic and Limits of Bankruptcy Law.Cambridge,Mass.:Beard Books,1986.(破产法);Wendy J.Gordon,“An Lnquiry into the Merits of Copyright:The Challenges of Consistency,Consent,and Encouragement Theory.”Stanford Law Review 41:1343ff,1989.(知识产权法); Christopher H.Schroeder,“Rights Against Risks.” Columbia Law Review 86:495ff,1986.(侵权法)。也参见Lawrence B.Solum,“Situating Political Liberalism.” Chicago-Kent Law Review 69:549ff,1994b.(探讨法学学术和司法观念中对罗尔斯理论的运用)。
[15]当代的经典是Robert Nozick,Anarchy,State,and Utopia.Oxford:Basil Blackwell,1977。在法学中的运用,参见诸如Donna M.Byrne,“Progressive Taxation Revisited.” Arizona Law Review 37:739ff,1995; Joseph H.Carens,“Aliens and Citizens:The Case for Open Borders.” Review of Policy 49:251ff,1987; Frank J.Garcia,“Trade and Lnequality:Economic Justice and the Developing World.” Michigan Journal of Lnternational Law 21:975ff,2000.Barnett(Randy Barnett,The Structure of Liberty.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998.)提出了一套有影响力的自由主义理论。也参见James E.Fleming,“The Parsimony of Libertarianism.” Constitutional Commentary 17:171ff,2000.(讨论巴内特),Lawrence B.Solum,“The Foundations of Liberty.” Michigan Law Review 97:1781ff,1999.(讨论巴内特)。
[16]在Michael J.Sandel,Liberalism and the Limitsof Justice(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1988)中,可以找到一项杰出的社群主义批判。关于法学界的讨论,参见诸如C.Edwin.Baker,“Sandel on Rawls.” U.Pa.Law Review 133:895ff,1985; William E.Forbath,“Constitutional Welfare Rights:A History,Critique,and Reconstruction.”Fordham Law Review 69:1821ff,2001; Kevin P.Quinn,“Viewing Health Care as a Common Good:Looking Beyond Political Liberalism.” Southern California Law Review 73:277ff,2000。
[17]参见上页注释2的文献。
[18]关于搁置美德伦理学,而具体地自觉选择讨论道义论和功利主义,参见Strudler,Alan,and Eric W.Orts.,“Moral Principle in the Law of Lnsider Trading.” Texas Law Review 78:375ff.(1999,381-82 n.20):出于本文的目的,我们将视功利主义为道义论的主要规范理论替代选项。这么做,有两个理由。首先,在内幕交易这类主题的研究中,经济分析的倡导者经常将功利主义视为经济分析的道德基础……其次,在历史上,功利主义被看作道义论最强劲的对手……出于篇幅的考虑和编辑的要求,我们将对道德理论的讨论做出一些选择,并忽略除道义论和功利主义之外的理论探讨。这并不表示我们对美德伦理学、道德发展理论、社会契约理论,抑或任何其他道德理论的不敬。
[19]参见诸如Robert J.Araujo,“Moral Lssues and the Virtuous Judge:Reflections on the Nomination and Confirmation of Supreme Court Justices.”Catholic Lawyer 35:311ff,1994;Donald F.Brosnan,“Virtue Ethics in a Perfectionist Theory of Law and Justice.” Cardozo Law Review 11:335ff,1989; Miriam Galston,“Taking Aristotle Seriously:Republican-Oriented Legal Theory and the Moral Foundation of Deliberative Democracy.”California Law Review 82:329ff,1994;J.L.A.Garcia,“Topics in the New Natural Law Theory.” American Journal of Jurisprudence 46:51ff.,2001; Steven J.Heyman,“Aristotle on Political Justice.” Lowa Law Review 77:851ff,1992; Linda R.Hirschman,“The Virtue of Liberality in American Communal Life.” Michigan Law Review 88:983ff,1990; Linda R.Hirschman,“The Book of‘A.’” Texas Law Review 70:971ff,1992。
[20]Elbert L.Robertson,“A Corrective Justice Theory of Antitrust Regulation.” Catholic U.Law Review 49:741ff,2000.
[21]Robert J.Araujo,“Justice as Right Relationship:A Philosophical and Theological Reflection on Affirmative Action.”Pepperdine Law Review 27:377ff,2002,433-34.
[22]Mark Neal Aaronson,“Be Just to One Another:Preliminary Thoughtson Civility,Moral Character,and Professionalism.”St.Thomas Law Review 8:113ff,1995; Stephen M.Bainbridge,“Community and Statism:A Conservative Contractarian Critique of Progressive Corporate Law Scholarship.”Cornell Law Review 82:856ff,1997; Caryn L.Beck-Dudley,“No More Quandries:A Look at Virtue Through the Eyes of Robert Solomon.” American Business Law Journal 34:117ff,1996; Jeffrey Nesteruk,“Law,Virtue,and the Corporation.” American Business Law Journal 33:473ff,1996a; Jeffrey Nesteruk,“The Moral Dynamics of Law in Business.” American Business Law Journal 34:133ff,1996b.
[23]参见Kyron Huigens,“Virtue and Lnculpation.” Harvard Law Review 108:1423ff,1995; Kyron Huigens,“Virtue and Criminal Negligence.” Buffalo Criminal Law Review 1:431ff,1998; Kyron Huigens,“The Dead End of Deterrence,and Beyond.” William and Mary Law Review 41:943ff,2000a; Kyron Huigens,“Rethinking the Penalty Phase.” Arizona State Law Journal 32:1195ff,2000b; Kyron Huigens,“Solving the Apprendi Puzzle.” Georgetown Law Journal 90:387ff,2002,以及Eric L.Muller,“The Virtue ofMercy in Criminal Sentencing.” Seton Hall Law Review 24:288ff,1993。
[24]Alison M.Sulentic,“Happiness and ERLSA:Reflections on the Lessons of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics for Sponsors of Employee Benefit Plans.” Employee Rights and Employment Policy Journal 5:7ff,2001.
[25]Jeffrey Gaba,“Environmental Ethics and Our Moral Relationship to Future Generations:Future Rights and Present Value.” Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 24:249ff,1999a; Jeffrey Gaba,“Environmental Ethics and Our Moral Relationship to Future Generations:Future Rights and Present Virtue.” Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 24:249ff,1999b.and Bradley A.Harsch,“Consumerism and Environmental Policy:Moving Past Consumer Culture.” Ecology Law Quarterly 26:543ff,1999.
[26]Heidi Li.Feldman,“Prudence,Benevolence,and Negligence:Virtue Ethics and Tort Law.” Chicago-Kent Law Review 74:1431ff,2000;参见Kenneth W.Simons,“The Hand Formula in the Draft Restatement(Third) of Torts:Encompassing Fairness asWell as Efficiency Values.”Vanderbilt Law Review 54:901ff,2001。
[27]Robert J.Araujo,“The Virtuous Lawyer:Paradigm and Possibility.” SMU Law Review 50:433ff,1997; Robert F.Cochran,“Lawyers and Virtues.” Notre Dame Law Review 71:707ff,1996; Robert F.Cochran,“Crime,Confession,and the Counselor-At-Law:Lessons From Dostoyevsky.” Houston Law Review 35:327ff,1998; Robert F.Cochran,“Professionalism in the Postmodern Age:Lts Death,Attempts at Resuscitation,and Alternate Sources of Virtue.” Notre Dame Journal of Law Ethics and Public Policy 214:305ff,2000; Heidi Li.Feldman,“Codes and Virtues:Can Good Lawyers Be Good Ethical Deliberators?” Southern California Law Review 69:885ff,1996; Heidi Li.Feldman,“Beyond the Model Rules:The Place of Examples in Legal Ethics.” Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics 12:409ff,1999; Perkins 1998; Thomas L.Shaffer,“The Legal Profession's Rule Against Vouching for Clients:Advocacy and ‘The Manner That Ls The Man Himself.’”Notre Dame Journal of Law,Ethics and Public Policy 7:145ff,1993; Smith,Abbe,and William Montross,“The Calling of Criminal Defence.” Mercer Law Review 50:443ff.,esp.511-33,1999; Paul R.Tremblay,“The New Casuistry.” Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics 12:489ff,1999b.
[28]Walter M.Hudson,“Book Review,Obeying Orders:Atrocity,Military Discipline,and the Law of War.” Military Law Review 161:225ff,1999; Mark J.Osiel,“Obeying Orders:Atrocity,Military Discipline,and the Law of War.”California Law Review 86:939ff,1998.
[29]Mark Neal Aaronson,“We Ask You To Consider:Learning About Practical Judgement Ln Lawyering.” Clinical Law Review 4:247ff,1998; Linda R.Hirschman,“Nobody in Here but Us Chickens:Legal Education and the Virtues of the Ruler.” Stanford Law Review 45:1905ff,1993.
[30]Paul R.Tremblay,“Acting‘A Very Moral Type of God’:Triage Among Poor Clients.” Fordham Law Review 67:2475ff,1999.
[31]亚里士多德的思想是否包含了现代意义上的美德伦理学,还有争论;我不会介入这一争论。对我的目的有帮助的立场,我归结到亚里士多德,即使它最终被证明是一种与亚里士多德自身理论不一致的新亚里士多德的变体。
[32]关于亚里士多德思想中守法与美德之间关系的讨论,参见Richard Kraut,Aristotle:Political Philosophy.Oxford:Clarendon Press,2002。强调将塑造美德作为法之目的的当代进路,参见Robert P.George,Making Men Moral:Civil Liberties and Public Morality.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1995。
[33]一个强调美德,尤其是实践智慧,但并非根植于当代美德伦理学的论述,参见Anthony T.Kronman,The Lost Lawyer:Failing Ideals of the Legal Profession.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1993。更直接结合法伦理学与美德伦理学的论述,参见上页注释5的文献。
[34]亚里士多德的正义观与有关法的本质的争论之间的关系,显然是难以厘清的。对亚里士多德的一个很有启发性的解读,参见Richard Kraut,Aristotle:Political Philosophy(Oxford:Clarendon Press,2002,pp.98-177)对《尼各马可伦理学》第五卷具有启发意义且重要的讨论。
[35]尽管我的讨论是关于裁判理论的,但并不意味着美德法理学仅应当关注法官的美德。除裁判理论以外,完备的美德法理学还将对立法者、裁判者、公民以及其他法律行为者(legal actors)之美德作出说明。然而,裁判是一个重要的例子,至少某种程度上因为裁判理论在当代法理学中是一个突出的主题。
[36]一般内容,参见Jeremy Waldron,The Dignity of Legislation,189ff.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999。
[37]其他近来运用亚里士多德思想推进裁判理论发展的成果,参见Mark C.Modak-Truran,“Corrective Justice and the Revival of Judicial Virtue.” Yale Journal of Law and Humanities 12:249ff,2000.和Rebecca S.Henry,“The Virtue in Discretion:Ethics,Justice,and Why Judges Must Be‘Students of the Soul.’” New York University Review of Law&Social Change 25:65ff,1999。笔者之前关于以美德为中心的裁判理论研究,包括Lawrence B.Solum,“The Virtues and Vices ofa Judge:An Aristotelian Guide to Judicial Selection.” Southern California Law Review 1730,1988;Lawrence B.Solum,“Virtues and Voices.” Chicago-Kent Law Review 66:111ff,1990; Lawrence B.Solum,“Equity and the Rule of Law.” Nomos 34:120ff,1994a。
[38]参见Ronald Dworkin,“Hard Cases.” Ln Taking Rights Seriously,81ff.London:Duckworth,1978;也参见Ronald Dworkin,Law's Empire.Oxford:Hart Publishing.Troels Engberg-Pedersen,1983.Aristotle's Theory of Moral Insight.Louisville,Ky.:Westminster/John Knox Press,1986。
[39]Maitland (F.W.Maitland,“A Prologue to a History of English Law.” Law Quarterly Review 14:13ff,1898,pp.13.):“这就是历史的统一,任何试图谈及它一部分的人,必然会觉得他的第一句话就撕开了一张无缝的网”;也参见“环球航空公司诉美国证券交易所”(1990,685)(讨论“不断提及的法律的无缝的网”);克兰沃特·本森有限责任公司(上诉人)诉林肯市议会(多个被上诉人之一)1999(切汶里的戈夫法官的意见)。(https://www.daowen.com)
[40]参见John Rawls,A Theory of Justice.Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press.1999§60,pp.347-50。
[41]我并不是主张,行为功利主义不能提供支持司法整全性的理由。我仅仅是意指,一个人完全可以主张,关注整全性并不意味着,这项美德就会成为一套理论判定司法判决结果之正确性的确证。相反,规则功利主义的裁判理论也许需要司法整全的美德。
[42]事实上,很难想象一套理论能够不涉及美德之外的概念来解释裁判。关于这个世界和法律的事实,对描述法官主审的案件来说,显然是必不可少的。问题并非我们是否要将这些事实纳入以美德为中心的理论。而不如说,问题是这些事实怎样与司法美德相关联。
[43]参照John Rawls,“Outline of a Decision Procedure for Ethics.” Philosophical Review 60:177ff,1951。
[44]关于司法腐败的一般背景以及控制司法腐败的努力,参见《1993年国家司法纪律与免职委员会》;Maria Simon,“Bribery and Other Not So‘Good Behaviour’:Criminal Prosecution asa Supplement to Lmpeachmentof Federal Judges.”Columbia Law Review 94:1617ff,1994。
[45]是否在所有人类事业上要取得卓越成就都必须要有美德,这一点对我而言尚不确定。比如,也许即使一个人德行败坏,也不妨碍他成为一个出色的画家或歌手。我在本文的主张是,对本质上是社会性和实践性的人类事务而言,美德是必要的。尽管在这里我并不会为这一主张提出任何辩护。
[46]对司法美德的其他讨论,参见Robert J.Araujo,“Moral Lssues and the Virtuous Judge:Reflections on the Nomination and Confirmation of Supreme Court Justices.”Catholic Lawyer 35:311ff,1994;也参见Mary Ann Glendon,A Nation Under Lawyers:How the Crisis in the Legal Profession IS Transforming American Society.Cambridge,Mass:Harvard University Press,1994; David Luban,“Justice Holmes and Judicial Virtue.” Nomos 34:235ff,1992,242-56; Terry Pinkard,“Judicial Virtue and Democratic Politics.” Nomos34:265ff,1992,281-82。
[47]用“可能”这一表述意在表明,我在这里并非坚持某个立场。我没有排除这样一种可能性,即优秀法官所形成的情绪反应在心理上不同于那些没有扮演这一(或与之相似的)角色的人。
[48]很多读者建议将一些司法美德添加到我的德目中。比如,普通法体系中的法官有时需要写下证立其判决的司法意见。为了能够出色地完成这项工作,法官就需要特定的、可称之为美德的技能和能力——首先想到的是雄辩和机智。
[49]对这一观点的质疑,参见David Pears,“Courage as a Mean.” Ln Essays on Aristotle's Ethics,edited by A.O.Rorty,171ff.Berkeley:University of California Press,1980。
[50]正如勒恩德·汉德所言,“正是这些琐屑的、微不足道的,也正是小人物累积起来的伤害,是我们这里需要保护的……如果我们要保护好我们的民主,就必遵循一条戒律:正义不可配给”。
[51]Aristotle,The Ethics of Aristotle:The Nicomachean Ethics,translated byJ.A.K.Thomson,revised by Hugh Tredennick.London:Penguin,1976,1125b27-31.
[52]法官必须在两种意义上精通法律。首先,他们必须在这样一种意义上精通法律,即他们必须实际上掌握与其裁判相关的大量法律知识。其次,他们必须在另一种意义上精通法律,也即具备足以保证他们能掌握法律知识的认知能力。第一种意义上的精通不是理智美德,第二种意义上的精通则属此列。然而,第一种意义上的精通是形成第
[53]我对实践智慧的理解,受很多著作的影响,参见例如Alasdair MacLntyre,After Virtue:A Study in Moral Theory.London:Duckworth; Hardie,W.F.R.,Aristotle's Ethical Theory.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1980,pp.212-39;Troels Engberg-Pedersen,Aristotle's Theory of Moral Lnsight.Louisville,Ky.:Westminster/John Knox Press,1983。关于实践智慧与法律技能的讨论,参见Brett G.Scharffs,2001.“Law as Craft.” Vanderbilt Law Review 54:2245ff。
[54]参见Lawrence B.Solum,“What Remains of Freedom of Speech for Lawyers after Gentile?” California Litigation(November):16ff,1991,p.16。
[55]同上。
[56]杨格案是考斯法官在加利福尼亚上诉法院在任期间审理的。
[57]参见Ellis J.Horvitz,“Otto Kaus Remembered.” Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 30:961ff,1997。
[58]参见Judith Resnick,“Managerial Judges.” Harvard Law Review 96:374ff,1982。
[59]在对我前期著作的口头评论中,肯特·格林诺瓦特和芭芭拉·赫尔曼已经提出,上诉法官与初审法官的美德也许存在非常重要的差异。同时参考Barbara Herman,1988.“Comment on Gavison.” Southern California Law Review 61:1663-64。“如果由社会角色来定义司法美德,也许需要好好问一下,是否存在跨越不同法院的角色统一性,来为‘好判决’这个概念赋予充足的内容。如果确实存在显著的不同,就为从低层级法院向高层级法院的美德转变这一问题留下了空间。一个穷尽的美德清单没有回答问题,反而模糊了问题”。正如本文提出的,我并不相信这种差异是根本性的,只是对这个问题的充分讨论超出了我在本文的任务。
[60]对于实践智慧在上诉阶段的必要性,还有很多需要说明的。在这里,我只能给出一个未来的学术承诺。
[61]结果很可能是,这个法官不可能具备“司法智慧”的美德或实践智慧,也会缺乏正义感。下文将涉及司法美德统一性的问题。
[62]这名法官没有正义行为的倾向。即使他也会遵循法律,但他之所以会这么做,将仅出于具体原因,而非出自正义。比如,他做出的判决可能看上去是法律上正确的,但也许其动机是对荣誉和名声的考虑。但是一旦正义与荣誉不可兼得他将会选择后者而牺牲前者,。
[63]参见Bernard Williams,“Justice as a Virtue.” Ln Essayson Aristotle'sEthics,edited by A.O.Rorty.Berkeley:University of California Press,1980。
[64]然而,也存在非一般案件。对司法贪婪之恶习的讨论提醒我们,有时法官在审理案件时确实会为自身考虑。当一个法官收受贿赂,或是在涉及自身经济利益的案件而未回避时,这种情况就会发生。
[65]为避免混淆,需要提请注意的是,我不认为文中的这一段落是针对威廉姆斯对“以美德为中心”的裁判理论提出的挑战而做出的回应。
[66]“司法美德是使人们与其个人价值观和人生规划保持距离,并以客观的视角做出判断的那些美德。”Stephen Macedo,Liberal Virtues.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1990,p.275。
[67]我并不是意在表明,法官永远不会偏心,或者没有担任法官职务的人绝不应该公正。我们所有人,不论是不是法官,都应当在适当的场合、对恰当的人、根据恰当的理由,有所偏向。同样地,当情况需要时,我们都需要公正的能力与倾向。
[68]司法整全性的美德用美德法理学的术语表达了在德沃金“整全法”理论中很多相同的目的。
[69]参见Nancy Sherman,The Fabric of Character.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1989。
[70]引入美德和正确判决之间的区别,是为了区分一个完全合乎美德的判决(由具有美德的法官出自美德做出)与仅仅是正确的判决(出于错误的原因做出)。为了在法律上正确,仅需要它是一个具有美德的法官在同样的情境下将会(would have)做出的判决。因此,一个法律上正确的判决也可以是基于恶意的原因而做出的。比如,一个腐败的法官接受贿赂做出的判决,可以与一个具有美德的法官做出的判决是一样的。
[71]在这些案件中,我倾向于说,任何有美德的人都能发现哪个结果是正确的,以及为何它是正确的,但形成这种理解的过程可能涉及很多解释。
[72]这种说法仅仅是符合罗尔斯意义上的“作为公平的正义”。
[73]参见Richard Kraut,Aristotle:Political Philosophy.Oxford:Clarendon Press,2002,pp.105-08,117。
[74]参见LudwigWittgenstein,Philosophical Investigations,translated by G.E.M.Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell,1968,§1。
[75]参见“美国诉美国铝业公司案”(1945,433)(勒恩德·汉德的判决意见指出,“试图界定‘明显错误’一词的含义是徒劳的;那么,有用的说法是,虽然上诉法院对推翻法官之认定的犹豫程度会低于行政审判庭或陪审团,但即使如此,也能在充分说服的前提下,而非十分勉强地推翻其认定”);同样参见Edward H.Cooper,“Civil Rule 50(A):Rationing and Rationalizing the Resources of Appellate Review.” Notre Dame Law Review 63:645ff,1988。以美德为中心的理论同样解释了这样一种观点,即“明显错误”规则的适用着眼于初审法官的美德。参见James(Fleming James,and Hazard Geoffrey,Civil Procedure.Boston:Little,Brown,1985,§12.8,668):“上诉法院倾向于依据其未声明的、对初审法官公正之心的信任程度,来决定是否接受初审法官的认定。”
[76]我感谢菲利普·普尔曼(Phillip Pullman)强有力地提出了他的反对意见,并感谢琳达·扎格泽博斯基(Linda Zagzebski)帮助我得出呈现在这里的回应。
[77]尽管我承认美德判决的多样性,但是我要指出,这种假设将会遭到各种方式的攻击。比如,我们也许会主张,拥有部分美德的法官们对同一案件同一问题做出的判决可能不同,尽管如此,拥有完整美德的法官将只会做出一项判决。换言之,由具备美德程度不同的法官所做出的不同判决,会随着美德程度的提升而集中到一个判决。这种论述也许符合某些类型的问题与案件,但我将表明,尚且存在一些情况和案件,并不符合增长的美德汇集成唯一结果的论述。
[78]参见Lawrence B.Solum,“On the Lndeterminacy Crisis:Critiquing Crit-ical Dogma.” U.of Chicago Law Review 54:462ff,1987(区分了不确定与欠确定)。当然,这种主张是有争议的。我在这里没有提及德沃金提出的重要且有说服力的论点。
[79]请参见比如1959年琼斯诉斯特雷洪一案:“初审法官在其自由裁量权的范围内决定某一事项,其决定的方式将不同于一个被置于相同情境中的上诉法官,这样一种事实或情形并不表明发生了自由裁量权的滥用。”
[80]参见2002年福特诉福特案(该案表明,判决上存在差异并不能证明撤销儿童抚养权的判决就涉及“滥用自由裁量权”)。
[81]Roger Shiner,“Aristotle's Theory of Equity.” Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 27:1245ff,1994.
[82]Roger Shiner,“Aristotle's Theory of Equity.” Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 27:1245ff,1994.; Richard Kraut,Aristotle:Political Philosophy.Oxford:Clarendon Press,2002,pp.108-11.
[83]Frederick Schauer,Playing by the Rules:A Philosophical Examination of Rule-Based Decision-Making in Law and Life.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1991.
[84]即使法典可以足够长,让它“完备”也不会是个好主意,当我们提到“完备”,意思是法典足够具体,理论上而言,它为每一个可能案件的决策提供了指南。完备的法典将会如此冗长和复杂,以至于它对指导判决不会有实际用处。参照Lawrence B.Solum,“The Boundaries of Legal Discourse and the Debate over Default Rules in Contract.” Southern California Multidisciplinary Law Review 3:311ff.1993,p.324-27(在完整合同概念的语境中提出了相似的观点)。