六、结语
美国的执法机构采用合理分析原则对排他性交易进行分析评估。除了没有任何促进竞争效果的本身违法行为之外,美国法院会对反竞争影响的指控和促进竞争效果的抗辩进行评估,来确定该行为是否违反了反垄断法。
合理分析原则要求执法机构考察限制性行为的反竞争效果,这通常意味着该行为对价格、质量或者创新产生的不利影响。如果存在可能的反竞争损害,则被告仍有机会证明该行为具有促进竞争的效果。如果同时存在反竞争损害和促进竞争效果,执法机构则应将其进行比较以确定是否违法。
在美国的执法实践中,对反竞争损害和促进竞争效果进行的比较很少发生。实际上,法院往往倾向于得出要么相关行为具有促进竞争效果而非反竞争的,要么相关行为是反竞争的且没有促进竞争效果的结论。
欧盟委员会在TFEU第101条和第102条下就排他性交易的执法原则起初与美国有所不同,但最终还是采用了类似的原则。最初,欧盟委员会和法院认为排他性交易违反了TFEU第101(1)条,并且仅在极少数例外情况下允许该行为。欧盟委员会和法院最终采取了更全面的分析,从而可以对此类行为的总体效果进行评估。TFEU第102条对滥用市场支配地位的执法也经历了类似的发展。
通过上述的总结可以得到的一个合理结论是,美国和欧盟对于排他性交易采取了类似的反垄断原则,即合理分析原则,而非本身违法原则。这并不意味着类似案件在这两个司法管辖区域一定会有相同的结果。不同法域的反垄断执法机构有不同的执法倾向,各地法院也可能需要遵循各自不同的先例。在诉讼案件上欧美执法机构所拥有的资源亦有所不同,这都可能影响它们执法的决策。但令人鼓舞的是,这两个法域对排他性交易都采用了类似的反垄断原则。
Exclusive Dealing: Economic Analysis and Antitrust Enforcement
Richard J.Gilbert (Author)
HUANG Kun (Translator)
Abstract: Exclusionary conduct by firms that have market power is a central concern for antitrust enforcement in the United States and other jurisdictions.This report describes different types of exclusive dealing arrangements and identifies their potential economic costs and benefits.In some circumstances, these arrangements can foreclose competition, make competition less effective by raising rivals’ costs, or facilitate collusion.They can also have pro-competitive benefits.Exclusive dealing arrangements can deter free-riding, align supplier and retailer incentives, promote and protect investments in new products and services, allow firms to benefit from economies of scale and scope, prevent unauthorized copying of intellectual property, trade secrets, and know-how, and help manufacturers and retailers to certify quality.This paper reviews the legal treatment of exclusive dealing arrangements under US and European antitrust laws and discusses how antitrust enforcement in these regimes has aligned with the potential economic costs and benefits from these arrangements.
Keywords: Exclusive Dealing; Vertical Restraints; Market Power; Antitrust
(责任编辑:江山)
【注释】
[1]美国联邦贸易委员会(Federal Trade Commission,FTC)将“独家交易”定义为“阻止分销商出售其他制造商产品”的行为,并将“有购买要求的合同”定义为“阻止制造商从其他供应商处购买原材料的协议”。See FTC:Exclusive Dealing or Requirements Contracts.
[2]欧盟竞争法将“单一品牌”一词用于强制或诱使买方将某类产品的订单集中于一个供应商的协议,将“独家供应协议”一词用于阻止供应商将原材料出售给其他买方的协议。根据欧盟委员会,在“独家分销”协议中,供应商同意仅将其产品出售给一个分销商,以在特定地区转售。如果分销商的销售限于特定的客户群,则该协议称为“独家客户分配”。参阅欧盟委员会:《纵向限制指南(2010年)》。
[3]Melamed, A.Douglas, Exclusive Dealing Agreements and Other Exclusionary Conduct—Are There Unifying Principles?, 73(2) ANTITRUST LAW JOURNAL 375, 375 − 412 (2006).
[4]See Aghion, Philippe and Bolton, Patrick, Contracts as a Barrier to Entry, 77(3) AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW 388, 388 − 401 (1987).关于照付不议合同的竞争影响的讨论。
[5]在Jefferson Parish Hosp.Dist.v.Hyde, 466 U.S.2 (1984) 一案中,美国最高法院指出,搭售可以等同于排他性交易 (“Whether or not the hospital-Roux contract is characterized as a tie between distinct products, the contract unquestionably does constitute exclusive dealing.” 466 U.S.2, 44)。
[6]U.S.v.Colgate & Co., 250 U.S.300, 305.另请参阅Verizon Communs., Inc.v.Law Offices of Curtis V.Trinko, LLP, 540 U.S.398和美国司法部和联邦贸易委员会:《关于知识产权许可的反垄断指南》(Antitrust Guidelines for the Licensing of Intellectual Property),2017年1月12日,第4.1.2条。
[7]参阅《纵向限制指南(2010年)》。
[8]See Radio Telefis Eireann (RTE) & Independent Television Publications Ltd.(ITP) v.Commission, Cases C-241/91 P & C-242/91 P (1995) and IMS Health GmbH & Co.OHG v.ADC Health GmbH & Co.KG, Case C-418/01 (2004).
[9]Robert H.Bork, THE ANTITRUST PARADOX: A POLICY AT WAR WITH ITSELF 309 (New York, Basic Books, 1978).
[10]Segal, Ilya R.and Michael D.Whinston, Naked Exclusion; Comment, 90(1) AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW 296, 296 − 309 (2000).
[11]Krattenmaker, Thomas G.and Steven C.Salop, Anticompetitive Exclusion: Raising Rivals’ Costs to Achieve Power over Price, 96 YALE LAW JOURNAL, 209 − 293 (1986).
[12]See e.g., Porter, Robert H., A Study of Cartel Stability: The Joint Executive Committee, 14(2) BELL JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS, 1880 − 1886, 301 − 314 (1983).
[13]Supra note〔10〕.
[14]See Bernheim, Douglas B.and Michael D.Whinston, Exclusive Dealing, 106(1) JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY 64, 64 − 103 (1998).
[15]See Klein, Benjamin, Competitive Resale Price Maintenance in the Absence of Free-Riding, 76(2) ANTITRUST LAW JOURNAL 431, 431 − 481 (2009).
[16]《纵向限制指南(2010年)》,第35段中称之为“纵向外部效应问题”(vertical externality issue)。
[17]《纵向限制指南(2010年)》,第33段。
[18]《纵向限制指南(2010年)》,第34 − 35段。
[19]See e.g., Farrell, Joseph and Carl Shapiro, Dynamic Competition with Switching Costs, 19(1) RAND JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS 123, 123 − 137 (1988).
[20]See Standard Oil Co.of California v.U.S., 337 U.S.293 (1949).证据表明,Socal占相关市场汽油销量的23%,并与16%的独立加油站签署了排他性协议,这些加油站在市场上销售了6.7%的汽油。
[21]Id., at 311.
[22]Id., at 310.
[23]See Tampa Elec.Co.v.Nashville Coal Co., 365 U.S.320 (1961).
[24]See FTC v.Brown Shoe Co., Inc., 384 U.S.316 (1966).
[25]See FTC v.Beltone Electronics Corp., 100 F.T.C.68 (1982).
[26]See Barry Wright Corporation v.ITT Grinnell Corporation, 724 F.2d 227 (1983).
[27]Id., at 237.
[28]See Roland Machinery Company v.Dresser Industries Inc., 749 F.2d 380 (1984).
[29]Id., at 393.
[30]Id., at 393.
[31]See Omega Envtl., Inc.v.Gilbarco, Inc., 127 F.3d 1157, 1162, 1163 (1997).
[32]See United States v.Microsoft Corp., 87 F.Supp.2d 30 , 44 (D.D.C.2000).地方法院还裁定,微软需对试图垄断互联网浏览器市场承担责任。
[33]Id., at 52 − 53.
[34]Id., at 53.
[35]See U.S.v.Microsoft, 254 F.3d 34, 70.(https://www.daowen.com)
[36]Id., at 63.
[37]See United States v.Dentsply Int’l, Inc., 399 F.3d 181 (2005).
[38]Id., at 190.
[39]在修正之前,第101条对应的是《欧共体条约》第81条和第85条。即使判决是在条约修正之前,本文也将使用第101条指代相关条例。
[40]在修正之前,第102条对应的是《欧共体条约》第82条和第86条。即使判决是在条约修正之前,本文也将使用第102条指代相关条例。
[41]See e.g., Hawk, Barry E., System Failure: Vertical Restraints and EC Competition Law, 32(4) COMMON MARKET LAW REVIEW, 973 − 990, 974 (1995).And Korah, C.Valentine, The Judgment in Delimitis: A Milestone Towards Realistic Assessment of the Effects of an Agreement or Damp Squib, 8 TULANE EUROPEAN & CIVIL LAW FORUM 17 − 52, 31 (1993).
[42]See e.g.Jones, Alison, Analysis of Agreements under U.S.and EC Antitrust Law: Convergence or Divergence?, 51(4) ANTITRUST BULLETIN 691 − 811, 746 − 747 (2006).
[43]See Stergios Delimitis v.Henninger Bräu AG, Case C − 234/89 (1991).ECR I − 935.
[44]Id., at I-995.
[45]参见1999年12月22日欧盟委员会关于将《欧盟运行条约》第81(3)条适用于纵向协议和协同行为的说明,OJ L 336/21(1999)。
[46]参见1999年12月22日欧盟委员会关于将《欧盟运行条约》第81(3)条适用于纵向协议和协同行为的说明,OJ L 336/21(1999),第二段。该法规将独家供应协议定义为“直接或间接导致供应商仅能出售协议中规定的商品或服务给一位购买者,以用于特定用途或转售的协议”。
[47]参见1999年12月22日欧盟委员会关于将《欧盟运行条约》第81(3)条适用于纵向协议和协同行为的说明,OJ L 336/21(1999)。该法规将独家分销系统定义为“供应商承诺直接或间接地向根据指定标准选择的分销商出售合同商品或服务,而这些分销商承诺不向未经授权的分销商出售此类商品或服务的分销系统”。
[48]欧盟委员会通告:《纵向限制指南(2010年)》,OJ C291/1(2000)。
[49]See Guidelines on the Application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty, OJ C101/97(2004).
[50]参见《纵向限制指南(2010年)》,第133段。
[51]在此基础上,对独家供应协议而言,1999年的豁免法规还要求买方的市场份额也不能超过30%(但对其他纵向协议无此要求)。
[52]See Commission Regulation (EU) No 330/2010 on the application of Article 101(3) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union to categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices, 13 − 15 (2010).
[53]要求分销商阻止位于另一个独家区域的客户查看网站或将客户重新定向到制造商或其他分销商的网站;要求分销商在当客户的信用卡数据显示为分销商区域以外的地址时终止交易;要求分销商限制其整体线上销售(但是只要供应商不限制分销商的线上销售,其可以要求“一定绝对数量”的实体店销售);和要求分销商为在线销售的产品支付更高的价格(但如果在线销售可能导致供应商承担更高的费用,那此行为可以根据TFEU第101(3)条获得豁免)。See e.g., De Stefano, Gianni, The New EU Vertical Restraints Regulation: Navigating the Vast Seas beyond Safe Harbours and Hardcore Restrictions, 12 EUROPEAN COMPETITION LAW REVIEW 487-490, 488 (2010).
[54]2008年7月16日欧盟委员会的决定 (CISAC,COMP/C2/38.698)。在上诉后,欧盟初审法院废除了欧盟委员会的这项裁决(T-442/08 CISAC v.Commission ECLI:EU:T:2013:188, para 132, 182 − 183)。
[55]See Morgan Stanley/Visa International and Visa Europe, COMP/D1/37860.
[56]这涉及限制跨境销售的游戏激活密钥。See e.g., European Commission: Antitrust: Commission Sends Statements of Objections to Valve and Five Videogame Publishers on “Geo-blocking” of PC Video Games.
[57]2016年7月20日致国际掉期与衍生工具协会公司(International Swaps and Derivatives Association, Inc.)有关《欧盟运行条约》第101条和《欧洲经济共同体协定》第53条的委员会决定摘要。See Case AT.39745-CDS Information Market,2016/C 378/05.
[58]European Commission: Antitrust: Commission Welcomes Steps Taken by Amazon/Audible and Apple to Improve Competition in Audiobook Distribution, January 19, 2017.
[59]See e.g., Spinks, S.O., Exclusive Dealing, Discrimination, and Discounts Under EC Competition Law, 67(3) ANTITRUST LAW JOURNAL 645 − 646, 645 − 646 (2000).
[60]See e.g., Hovenkamp, Herbert, The Rule of Reason, 70 FLORIDA LAW REVIEW 82-167, 131 − 132.
[61]See Case AT.40291-Aquatrend.Antitrust Procedure.Council Regulation (EC) 1/2003 and Commission Regulation (EC) 773/2004 (2016).
[62]Supra note〔59〕.
[63]See United Brands Company and United Brands Continentaal v.Commission of the European Communities, case 27/76, para 65 (1978).
[64]See Official Journal of European Union (2009), para 4.
[65]See Hoffmann-La Roche & Co.AG v.Commission of the European Communities, case 85/76, ECR-00461, para 91 (1979).
[66]Id., at 2.
[67]Id., at 89.
[68]Id., at 468.
[69]See NV Nederlandsche Banden Industrie Michelin v.Commission of the European Communities, 322/81 (1983), ECR-03461.
[70]Economic Advisory Group for Competition Policy: An Economic Approach to Article 82, 2005, https://ec.europa.eu/ dgs/competition/economist/eagcp_july_21_05.pdf,last visited May 22, 2020.
[71]European Commission and DG Competition: DG Competition Discussion Paper on the Application of Article 82 of the Treaty to Exclusionary Abuses, Oct., 2005.
[72]参见2006年3月29日欧盟委员会COMP/E-1/38.113 – Prokent-Tomra决定,第10段。See Peeperkorn, Luc and Ekaterina Rousseva, Article 102 TFEU: Exclusive Dealing and Rebates, 2(1) JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN COMPETITION LAW & PRACTICE, 36 − 38 (2010).
[73]European Commission: Guidance on the Commission’s Enforcement Priorities in Applying Article 82 of the EC Treaty to Abusive Exclusionary Conduct by Dominant Undertakings (2009/C 45/02).
[74]Id., at 5.
[75]Id., at 23.
[76]Id., at 20.
[77]Id., at 28.
[78]European Commission: Antitrust: Commission Imposes Fine of €1.06 bn on Intel for Abuse of Dominant Position; Orders Intel to Cease Illegal Practices, May 13, 2009.
[79]参见2009年5月13日欧盟委员会COMP/C-3/37.990-Intel决定,第920段,以及2017年9月6日法院对上诉案C-413/14 P Intel Corp.v.European Commission的判决。
[80]ECJ: The Court of Justice Sets Aside the Judgment of the General Court which Had Upheld the Fine of €1.06 Billion Imposed on Intel by the Commission for Abuse of a Dominant Position, Sep.6, 2017.
[81]See e.g., Inline Packaging LLC v.Graphic Packaging International, LLC, No.15-cv-03181-ADM-LB (D.Minn.Sep.5, 2018.
[82]European Commission: Antitrust: Commission Fines Qualcomm €997 Million for Abuse of Dominant Market Position, January 24, 2018.