接下来会是什么
这并不意味着全球多边协议在多极化时代是一个坏主意。在某些基本原则上达成薄协议可能是有价值的,即使达成厚协议是不可能的。这种薄协议可以将未来的单边、双边和区域谈判指引到特定的方向。全球协议还可能赋权其他行动者,使他们能够对国家施加影响,无论是跨国非政府组织、科学家的认知共同体、经济学家,或者士兵、公司、国内的政治行为体和律师。人权倡导者可以在该国自己的法院使用该国批准的协议。[121]美国军事律师将反驳有关日内瓦公约过时的说法。[122]一系列团体将游说美国继续参与巴黎协议。尽管南非政府可能认为继续作为罗马规约缔约方没有什么好处,但它们的宪法法院可以让它更难退出并撤销他们的承诺。[123]
但就存在着总体上偏好全球范围的多边协议提供全球公共产品的程度上,[124]这种偏好可能需要重新考虑。在多极世界提供全球公共产品可能需要更小的交易,以保证国家具体的和有益的俱乐部产品。例如,国际正义可能必须移到地方一级,更直接地考虑到当地利益,并向有关的某个或某些国家承诺具体可实现的利益。[125]即使最终达成的协议在提供更广泛的产品方面效率和效果不好,情况也可能如此。通过类似TPP的自由贸易区加强对濒危物种或劳工权利的保护,尽管存在该模式的所有缺陷,但可能比通过全球多边濒危物种国际贸易公约的努力更为持久和有效。地方、双边和区域环境治理可能比全球多边治理更有效地促使参与者改变他们的政策。例如,蒂姆·迈耶(Tim Meyer)指出,有利于当地供应商的地方清洁能源计划可以比国家或多边努力更好地克服政治障碍。[126]成本作为外部性由他人承担,然而,这种成本可能是多极的、后多边的政策制定不可避免的代价。
值得注意的是,尽管这些其他形式的解决方案从全球政策的角度来看可能不那么有效,但它们可能更公平,或者更合理。[127] 因此,这些结构性现实与其他对于为了多边主义而多边主义的批评是相吻合的。这些批评包括:多边解决方案并非中立,它们可能倾向某些利益,鼓励预定政策选择的更为多元化的观点在规范上可能是更可取的。[128]在英国、美国和其他地方的选民目前对于多边机构忽视了他们的利益而支持了其他人利益的抱怨之下,人们可以听到对多边机构的民主赤字的担忧[129],更深层、更广泛的一体化可能并不总是更好。看清多边主义的结构性局限,可能有助于揭示它的某些规范性局限。
政策制定者还必须认真考虑,提供任何特定的全球产品是否真的需要普遍参与或近乎普遍的参与。对于气候变化的进展而言,排放最多的国家之间达成的协议,可能比能够赢得所有国家支持的协议更为重要。而且,虽然问题的某些方面可能需要近乎全球的合作,其他分散的方面则可能采取集体努力的形式,甚至采取单一最佳努力的公共产品的形式。[130]规范的制定和实施可能需要不同的策略和不同的协议。对于前者而言,全球多边协议可能仍是最佳策略,而对于后者而言,可能并非如此。政策制定者可能必须把复杂的问题分解成各个组成部分,并设计出有效的策略来解决每个方面。认识到多边主义的局限性可能会使政策制定更加复杂,但也可能使其更加周密。
(本文编辑:王潺)
【注释】
[1]本文编译自 Harlan Grant Coben,Multilateralism’s Life Cycle,American Journal of International Law,Vol.112,No.1,2018,pp.47-66.
[2]哈伦·格兰特·科本,佐治亚大学法学院国际法教授。
[3]李雪娇,吉林大学法学院国际法专业硕士生;王彦志,吉林大学法学院副教授。
[4]Michael D.Shear,Trump Will Withdraw US from Paris Climate Agreement,New York Times,June 1,2017.
[5]Anushka Ashthana,Ben Quinn&Rowena Mason,UK Votes to Leave EU after Dramatic Night Divides Nation,The Guardian,June 24,2016.
[6]Nicky Woolf,Justin McCurry&Benjamin Haas,Trump to Withdraw from Trans-Pacific Partnership on First Day in Office,The Guardian,Nov.22,2016.
[7]William Mauldin,Trump’s Big Gamble:Luring Countries into One-on-One Trade Deals,Wall Street Journal,January.27,2017.
[8]Norimitsu Onishi,South Africa Reverses Withdrawal from International Criminal Court,New York Times,March.8,2017.
[9]Jina Moore,Burundi Quits International Criminal Court,New York Times,October.27,2017.
[10]Philippines President Threatens to Quit“Stupid”UN in Foul Mouthed Tirade over War on Crime,Telegraph,August.21,2016.
[11]China’s Xi Pledges to Support Paris Climate Agreement,Al Jazeera,May 9,2017.
[12]Richard Javad Heydarian,This Is How a Superpower Commits Suicide,Washington.Post,November.13,2017;Jennifer Amur,4 Things to Watch Now That the US Has Withdrawn from TPP Trade Deal,Washington.Post,January.23,2017.
[13]Motoko Rich,The Trade Deal Trump Killed Is Back in Talks without US,New York Times,July 14,2017.
[14]Shawn Donnan,Long Live the TPP—Pacific Trade Pact Survives Largely Intact,Financial.Times,November.13,2017.
[15]JoséE.Alvarez&Benedict Kingsbury,American Journal of International Law,Vol.111,2017,pp.1,2-3.
[16]World Bank,Global Development Horizon 2011:Multipolarity:The New Global Economy,2011;UN Conference on Trade and Development,Key Statistics and Trends in International Trade 2015,UN Doc.UNCTAD/DITC/TAB/2015/1,2015;Christine Lagarde,The Role of Emerging Markets in a New Global Partnership for Growth,International Monetary Fund,February.4,2016,at https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/53/sp020416#P26_3019.
[17]Ingrid Wuerth,International Law in the Post-Human Rights Era,Texas Law Review.Vol.96,2017,p.279.
[18]Gráinne de Búrca,Human Right Experimentalism,American Journal of International Law,Vol.111,2017,pp.277,303-304;Pammela Quinn Saunders,The Integrated Enforcement of Human Rights,New York University Journal of International Law and Politics,Vol.45,2012,p.97.
[19]所有这些都不意味着多边主义的成功是当前任何反弹的原因。每一个多边机制都有自己复杂的叙述,而这些机制面临的危机是它们特有的。在任何给定的情况下,这里提到的因素可能不是政权不满的主要来源。相反,这篇文章强调了多边主义成功的一系列结构性影响,这些影响可能会破坏多边体制。
[20]多边主义是否真的导致了多极化还不得而知。公平地说,它所代表的更广泛的分散或财富和权力是“二战”后多边主义所期望的效果之一,因此多极化可能被视为多边主义成功的标志。
[21]Trade,at What Price?,The Economist,April.2,2016.
[22]David E.Sanger&Maggie Haberman,Donald Trump Sets Conditions for Defending NATO Allies against Attack,New York Times,July 20,2016.
[23]Jonathan Zasloff,Choose the Best Answer:Organizing Climate Change Negotiation in the Obama Administration,Northwestern University Law Review Colloquy,Vol.103,2009,p.330,333;Lavanya Rajamani,The Climate Regime in Evolution:The Disagreements that Survive the Cancun Agreements,Carbon&Climate Law Review,2011,p.136,138,“发展中国家,特别是巴西、南非、印度和中国”(“基础四国”不愿接受全球减排目标,因为缺乏可接受和公平的责任分担安排。在他们看来,如果没有这样的安排,这些目标将转化为对其发展的有效限制);Catching Up with China,The Economist,October.10,2015.
[24]……或者更直接地威胁WTO,参见Gregory Shaffer,Manfred Elsig&Mark Pollack,The Slow Killing of the World Trade Organization,The Huffington Post,November.17,2017,at https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/the-slow-killing-of-theworld-trade-organization_us_5a0ccd1de4b03fe7403f82df。
[25]一个机构的持续生存和面对这里所描述的力量的适应能力的一个明显因素是它继续为其成员创造的相对感知价值。它生产的价值越高,它可能就越强大。
[26]参见 Philippines President Threatens to Quit“Stupid”UN in Foul Mouthed Tirade over War on Crime,Telegraph,August.21,2016;Lewis,The Prisoners’Dilemma Posed by Free Trade Agreements:Can Open Access Provisions Provide an Escape?Chicago Iaurnal of International Law,Vol.11,2011,pp.651,652-653;Joost Pauwelyn,Legal Avenues to“Multilateralizing Regionalism”:Beyond ArticleⅩⅩⅣ,in Multilateralizing Regionalism Challenges for the Global Trading System,Richard Baldwin(ed.),2009;EU,Britain Agree to Seek Same WTO Quotas after Brexit:Sources,Reuters,October.3,2017;John F.Murphy,The United States and the Rule of Law in International Affairs,2004,pp.242-43;JoséE.Alvarez,The New Dispute Settlers:Half Truths and Consequences,Texas.International Law Journal,Vol.38,2003,p.405,444;China Refuses South China Sea Arbitration Award,Xinhua News,July 12,2016;Jane Perlez,Tribunal Rejects Beijing’s Claims in South China Sea,New York Times,July 12,2016;Your Rules or Mine?,The Economist,November.13,2014(描述“搭便车”的可能性)。
[27]Karen J.Alter&Kal Raustiala,The Rise of International Regime Complexity,Annual.Review of Law&Social Science,Vol.10,forthcoming 2018,available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3085043.
[28]Barry R.Posen,Emerging Multipolarity:Why Should We Care?Current History,Vol.108,2009,p.347;Kenneth Waltz,Theory of International Politics,1979.
[29]参见John Gerard Ruggie,International Regimes,Transactions,and Change:Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,Int’l Organization.,Vol.36,1982,pp.379,381-382,将19世纪大英帝国的贸易自由化倾向与17世纪荷兰帝国的重商主义观点区分开来。
[30]Alexander Wendt,Anarchy Is What States Make of It:The Social Construction of Power Politics,Int’l Organization.,Vol.46,1992,p.391.
[31]Joseph A.Schumpeter,History of Economic Analysis,Oxford University Press,1954;Arthur F.Burns&Wesley C.Mitchell,Measuring Business Cycles,The National Bureau of EConomic Research,1946.一些学者认为,商业周期本身(而不是它们的类比)可以解释国际间合作与竞争之间的转变,参见James Cassing,Timothy J.Mc Keown&Jack Ochs,The Political Economy of the Tariff Cycle,American Political Science Review,Vol.80,1986,p.843。
[32]参见如Karl Marx,Preface to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy,reprinted in The Marx-Engels Reader,edited by Robert C.Tucker(ed),2nd ed.,W.W.Norton&company,1978,pp.3-6概述了马克思的唯物史观。
[33]...with the notable exception of the immortal jellyfish,Turritopsis dohrnii.
[34]Chris Brummer,Minilateralism:How Trade Alliances,Soft Law and Financial Engineering are Redefining Economic Statecraft,Cambridge University Press,2014.
[35]从这个意义上说,像多边主义这样的组织原则可能具有生命周期的观点,可能会与国际法作为一种自生成系统的研究相冲突。该研究表明,在必要时,该系统将通过推动不同的组织方法来适应这种力量,Anthony D’Amato,Groundwork for International Law,American Journal of International Law,Vol.108,2014,p.650;Anthony D’Amato,International Law as an Autopoietic System,in Developments of International Law in Treaty Making,edited by Rudiger Wolfrum&Volcker Roeben(eds.),Springer,p.335,2005;Gunther Teubner,Law as an Autopoietic System,Springer,1993。
[36]参见如Beth A.Simmons,Mobilizing for Human Rights:International Law in Domestic Politics,Cambridge University Press,2009;Simon Chesterman,The Spy Who Came in from the Cold War:Intelligence and International Law,Michigan Journal of International Law,Vol.27,2006,p.1071,1098;Tim Golden,Tough Justice:After Terror,a Secret Rewriting of Military Law,New York Times,2004;James Macharia,South African Court Blocks Government’s ICC Withdrawal Bid,Reuters,FebYuary 22,2017.
[37]参见 Elizabeth Dickinson,New Order:How“the Multipolar World”Came to Be,Foreign Policy,October 15,2009(将各种关于多极化的文献编目)。
[38]Elizabeth Dickinson,New Order:How “the Multipolar World”Came to Be,Foreign Policy,October 15,2009.
[39]US National Intelligence Council,Global Trends 2025:A Transformed World,2008,p.ⅵ.
[40]参见,如 Jane Perlez,Leader Asserts China’s Growing Importance on Global Stage,New York Times,November.30,2014,引用习近平总书记的话来说,世界多极化的趋势不会改变。
[41]James Kanter,Trump Threatens Europe’s Stability,A Top Leader Warns,New York Times,January.31,2017.
[42]参见,如 William Burke-White,Power Shifts in International Law:Structural Realignment and Substantive Pluralism,Harvard Int’l Law Journal,Vol.56,2015,p.1;Charles A.Kupchan,No One’s World:The West,the Rising Rest,and the Coming Global Turn,Oxford University Press,2012;Paul Kennedy,The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers,Random House,1987。
[43]World Bank,Global Development Horizons 2011—Multipolarity:The New Global Economy,2011.
[44]World Bank,Global Development Horizons 2011—Multipolarity:The New Global Economy,2011,at 1.
[45]World Bank,Global Development Horizons 2011—Multipolarity:The New Global Economy,2011.
[46]World Bank,Global Development Horizons 2011—Multipolarity:The New Global Economy,2011.
[47]World Bank,Global Development Horizons 2011—Multipolarity:The New Global Economy,2011,at 3.
[48]UN Conference on Trade and Development,Key Statistics and Trends in International Trade 2015,UN Doc.UNCTAD/DITC/TAB/2015/1,2015.
[49]Christine Lagarde,The Role of Emerging Markets in a New Global Partnership for Growth,Int’l Monetary Fund,February 4,2016,at https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/53/sp020416#P26_3019.
[50]Winslow Robertson&Lina Benabdallah,China Pledged to Invest$60 Billion in Africa.Here’s What That Means,Washington Post,January 7,2016.
[51]Jane Perlez,China Showers Myanmar with Attention,as Trump Looks Elsewhere,New York Times,July 19,2017.
[52]China-Led AIIB Approves 13 New Members,Canada Joins,Reuters,March 23,2017.
[53]Peter Harris,How to Live in a Multipolar World,Nationa l Interest,January 3,2016.
[54]Building Peace in West Africa,Africa.Renewal,April 2004.
[55]Charles A.Kupchan,No One’s World:The West,the Rising Rest,and the Coming Global Turn,Oxford University Press,2012,at 3.
[56]当然,目前的多极化是许多趋同的历史事件的产物,多边机构在这些事件中只起了作用。虽然说多边主义导致了目前的多极化可能有些过分,但公平地说多极化是一个理想的结果,多边机构在鼓励和促进多极化方面发挥了作用。
[57]参见,如UN Charter preamble,包括作为目标,促进社会进步和提高生活水平,并维护国际和平与安全;International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,December 16,1966,999 UNTS 171,认识到人类大家庭所有成员固有的尊严以及平等和不可剥夺的权利是世界自由、正义与和平的基础。
[58]参见,如 Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization,preamble,April.15,1994,1867 UNTS 154,认识到……需要……确保发展中国家,特别是其中最不发达国家,在国际贸易增长中占有一个份额。有需要……确保发展中国家,特别是其中最不发达国家,在国际贸易增长中占有一定份额。
[59]Kenneth Waltz,The Stability of a Bipolar World,Daedalus,Vol.93,1964,p.881,888.
[60]Robert Jervis,Unipolarity:A Structural Perspective,World Policy,Vol.61,2009,p.188,190;G.John Ikenberry,Institutions,Strategic Restraint,and the Persistence of American Postwar Order,Int’l Security,Vol.23,1998—1999,p.43.
[61]Andrew Moravcsik,Europe:Rising Superpower in a Bipolar World,in Rising States,Rising Institutions:Challenges for Global Governance,edited by Alan S.Alexandroff&Andrew F.Cooper(eds),Brookings Institution Press,2010,p.151.
[62]Robert Jervis,Unipolarity:A Structural Perspective,World Policy,Vol.61,2009,p.188,190;Barry R.Posen,Emerging Multipolarity:Why Should We Care?,Current History,Vol.108,2009,p.347;G.John Ikenberry,Institutions,Strategic Restraint,and the Persistence of American Postwar Order,Int’l Security,Vol.23,1998—1999,p.43;kenneth Waltz,Theory of International Politics,McGraw-Hill,1979.(https://www.daowen.com)
[63]Burke White,Power Shifts in International Law:Structural Realignment and Substantive Pluralism,Harvard Int’l Law Journal,Vol.56,2015,p.1.
[64]Barbara Koremenos,Charles Lipson&Duncan Snidal,Rational Design of International Institutions,Int’l Organization,Vol.55,2001,p.761,describing assumptions.
[65]Consolidated Versions of the Treaty on the European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union,October 26,2012,2012(P0001)0390.
[66]Appellate Body Report,European Communities—Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries,WTO Doc.WT/DS246/AB/R,adopted April 20,2004.
[67]Rachael Bale,How the Trans-Pacific Partnership Will—and Won’t—Protect Wildlife,National Geographic,November 5,2015.
[68]参见,如Peter K.Yu,The RCEP and Trans-Pacific Intellectual Property Norms,Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law,Vol.50,2017,p.673,738,将知识产权义务描述为世界贸易组织一揽子承诺的一部分;Markus Wagner,Regulatory Space in International Trade Law and International Investment Law,University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law,Vol.36,2014,p.1,27,描述乌拉圭回合的一揽子承诺如何影响成员国的监管空间.
[69]Andrew Guzman,How International Law Works:A Rational Choice Theory,Oxford University Press,2007.
[70]Rachel Brewster,The Limits of Reputation on Compliance,Int’l Theory,Vol.1,2009,p.323.
[71]参见④中专著第328至第330页;又见Rachel Brewster,Unpacking the State’s Reputation,Harvard Int’l Law Journal,Vol.50,2009,p.231,244.
[72]Beth A.Simmons,Mobilizing for Human Rights:International Law in Domestic Politics,Cambridge University Press,2009,p.77.
[73]Rachel Brewster.The Limits of Reputation on Compliance,Int’l Theory,Vol.1,2009,p.323.
[74]John Gerard Ruggie,International Regimes,Transactions,and Change:Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,Int’l Organization,Vol.36,1982,p.379,381,describing view.
[75]Martha Finnemore,Norms,Culture,and World Politics:Insights from Sociology’s Institutionalism,Int’l Organization,Vol.50,1996,p.325.
[76]Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,How to Influence States:Socialization and International Human Rights Law,Duke Law Journal,Vol.54,2004,p.621.
[77]Beth A.Simmons,Treaty Compliance and Violation,13,Annual Review of Political Science,Vol.1,2010,p.273,286,解释“遵守某些国际环境协定对工业来说是昂贵的,至少在最初是如此。然而,在某些国际俱乐部产品中可以在排除违反者的情况下,提高合规率”。
[78]Beth A.Simmons,Treaty Compliance and Violation,Annual Review of Political Science,Vol.1,2010,p.273,286.
[79]Leslie Vinjamuri,The International Criminal Court and the Paradox of Authority,Law&Contemporary Probslems,Vol.79,2016,p.275.Beth A.Simmons and Allison Danner,Credible Commitments and the International Criminal Court,Int’l Organization,Vol.64,2010,p.225.
[80]而Beth A.Simmons和Allison Danner发现各国批准的证据是为了对国际正义作出可信的承诺,参见Beth A.Simmons&Allison Danner,Credible Commitments and the International Criminal Court,Int’l Organization,Vol.64,2010,p.225。Terence L.Chapman和Stephen Chaudoin发现那些最可能批准的国家,是那些最没有理由害怕被起诉的国家。Terence L.Chapman&Stephen Chaudoin,Ratification Patterns and the International Criminal Court,Int’l Studies Quarterly,Vol.57,2012,p.400.Jay Goodliffe和Darren Hawkins发现,《罗马规约》批准的最佳预测因素实际上是贸易关系和安全联盟。Jay Goodliffe&Darren Hawkins,A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Rome:Explaining International Criminal Court Negotiations,Journal of Politics.,Vol.71,2009,p.977.
[81]David Bosco,Rough Justice:The International Criminal Court in a World of Power Politics,Oxford University Press,2014,p.68.
[82]Rachel Brewster,The Limits of Reputation on Compliance,Int’l Theory,Vol.1,2009,p.323.
[83]Rachel Brewster,The Limits of Reputation on Compliance,Int’l Theory,Vol.1,2009,p.323.又见the chronological list of states parties to the Rome Statute,at https://asp.icc-cpi.int/en_me-nus/asp/states%20parties/Pages/states%20parties%20_%20chronological%20list.aspx。
[84]Beth A.Simmons,Mobilizing for Human Rights:International Law in Domestic Politics,Cambridge University Press,2009,pp.90-92.
[85]Generally Warren Maruyama,Preferential Trade Arrangements and the Erosion of the WTO’s MFN Principle,Stanford Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.46,2010,p.177.
[86]参见,如 Meredith Kolsky Lewis,The Prisoners’Dilemma Posed by Free Trade Agreements:Can Open Access Provisions Provide an Escape?,Chicago Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.11,2011,p.631,646,许多自由贸易协定并没有按GATT第24条的要求涵盖所有贸易,并以欧洲和日本的自由贸易协定为例。
[87]Meredith Kolsky Lewis,The Prisoners’Dilemma Posed by Free Trade Agreements:Can Open Access Provisions Provide an Escape?,Chicago Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.11,2011,pp.631,652-653.
[88]Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,Socializing States:Promoting Human RightsI Through International Law,pp.20-13,describing“isomorphism”and“decoupling”.
[89]Ryan Goodman&Derek Jinks,Socializing States:Promoting Human Rights through International Law,Oxford University Press,2013,pp.20-13.
[90]Max Du Plessis&Dire Tladi,The ICC’s Immunity Debate—The Need for Finality,EJIL:Talk!,August 11,2017,at https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-iccs-immunity-debate-the-needfor-finality.
[91]有效性本身就是一个值得分析的概念,参见,如Yuval Shany,Assessing the Effectiveness of International Courts:A Goal-Based Approach,American Journal of International Law,Vol.106,2012,p.225;Timothy L.Meyer,How Compliance Understates Effectiveness,AJIL Unbound,Vol.108,2014,p.93,2014。我在这里简单地用有效性来描述一个机构实现其所处体制的目标(或至少是可感知的目标的相对能力)。
[92]Joanna Harrington,Venezuela Denounces American Convention on Human Rights,EJIL:Talk!,September 12,2012,at https://www.ejiltalk.org/category/international-tribunals/inter-american-commission-on-human-rights.
[93]Philippines President Threatens to Quit“Stupid”UN in Foul Mouthed Tirade over War on Crime,Telegraph,August 21,2016.
[94]Meredith kolsky Lewis,The Prisoners’Dilemma Posed by Free Trade Agreements:Can Open Access Provisions Provide an Escape?,Chicago Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.11,2011,pp.651,652-653;Joost Pauwelyn,Legal Avenues to“Multilateralizing Regionalism”:Beyond ArticleⅩⅩⅣ,in Multilateralizing Regionalism Challenges for the Global Trading System,edited by Richard Baldwin(ed.),Cambridge University Press,2009.
[95]EU,Britain Agree to Seek Same WTO Quotas after Brexit:Sources,Reuters,October 3,2017.
[96]参见John F.Murphy,The United States and the Rule of Law in International Affairs,2004,Cambridge University Press,pp.242-243;又见JoséE.Alvarez,The New Dispute Settlers:Half Truths and Consequences,Texas Int’l Law Journal,Vol.38,2003,p.405,444,注意到,只有当美国能够确信它不会仅仅依靠只适用于其他国家的国际机构时,它才会加入国际刑事法院。
[97]China Refuses South China Sea Arbitration Award,Xinhua News,July 12,2016;Jane Perlez,Tribunal Rejects Beijing’s Claims in South China Sea,New York Times,July 12,2016,at A1.
[98]参见,如Your Rules or Mine?The Economist,November 13,2014(暗示中国可能在海洋法上“搭便车”,而不是支持它们)。
[99]Anne van Aaken,Behavioral International Law&Economics,Harvard Int’l Law Journal,Vol.55,2014,p.421,428;Ori Heffetz&Robert Frank,Preferences for Status:Evidence and Economic Implications,Johnson School Research Paper Series#05-09,July 2008;E.Fehr&K.M.Schmidt,A Theory of Fairness,Competition,and Cooperation,Quarterly Journal of Economics,Vol.114,1999,p.817;David Myers,The Pursuit of Happiness,Avon Books,1992,pp.43-44.
[100]E.Fehr&K.M.Schmidt,A Theory of Fairness,Competition,and Cooperation,Quarterly Journal of Economics,Vol.114,1999,p.826.
[101]E.Fehr&K.M.Schmidt,A Theory of Fairness,Competition,and Cooperation,Quarterly Journal of Eonomics,Vol.114,1999,p.826;Christina Starmans,Mark Sheskin&Paul Bloom,The Science of Inequality:Why People Prefer Unequal Societies,The Guardian,May 4,2017.
[102]Ori Heffetz&Robert Frank,Preferences for Status:Evidence and Economic Implications,Johnson School Research Paper Series#05-09 July 2008,at 13-14.
[103]Ori Heffetz&Robert Frank,Preferences for Status:Evidence and Economic Implications,Johnson School Research Paper Series#05-09 July 2008,at 26-27;Annevan Aaken,Behavioral International Law&Economics,Harvard International Law Journal,Vol.55,2014,p.427,429.
[104]Ori Heffetz&Robert Frank,Preferences for Status:Evidence and Economic Implications,Johnson School Research Paper Series#05-09 July 2008,at 26-27;Richard A.Easterlin,Robson Morgan,Malgorzata Switek,China’s Life Satisfaction,1990—2010,109 PNAS 9775,June 19,2012.
[105]Jeffrey Berejekian,The Gains Debate:Framing State Choice,American Political Science Review,Vol.91,1997,p.789.
[106]参见Dani Rodrik,The Globalization Paradox:Democracy and the Future of the World Economy,W.W.Norton&Company,2011,p.110,观察到世界经济自第二次世界大战以来达到了前所未有的增长水平。历史上没有什么比这更接近的了。
[107]Dani Rodrik,The Globalization Paradox:Democracy and the Future of the World Economy,2011,pp.258-59;Editorial Board,Global Trade after the Failure of the Doha Round,New York Times,January 1,2016.
[108]Alex Rogers,Meet the Critics of President Obama’s Trade Deal,Time,April 27,2015.
[109]Daniel C.K.Chow,How the United States Uses the Trans-Pacific Partnership to Contain China in International Trade,Chicago Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.17,2015,pp.370,386-387.
[110]Karen J.Alter&Kal Raustiala,The Rise of International Regime Complexity,Annual.Review of Law&Social Science,Vol.10,forthcoming 2018,available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3085043.
[111]Felicity Lawrence,Trump Is Right:NAFTA Is a Disaster.But US Workers Aren’t the Big Losers,The Guardian,November 18,2016;Robert B.Zoellick,The Case for Trade,and Why American Leaders Need to Make It,Harvard Business Review,September 19,2016;The Impact of China Joining the WTO,Wall Street Journal,May,22,2017;Damian Paletta,Trump Preparing Withdrawal from South Korea Trade Deal,a Move Opposed by Top Aides,Washington Post,September 2,2017.
[112]Bruce Stokes,Brexit Vote Highlighted UK’s Discontent with EU,but Other European Countries Are Grumbling Too,Pew Research Center,June 24,2016,at http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/24/brexit-vote-high-lighted-uks-discontent-with-eu-butother-european-countries-are-grumbling-too;Brexitl versus Londonia,The Economist,Jul.2,2016.
[114]参见,如generally Marc Trachtenberg,A Constructed Peace:The Making of the European Settlement,1945—1963,Princeton University Press,1999,pp.1945-1963,描述美国是如何通过对北约盟国作出让步来维持其在北约的权威的。
[115]Philip Rucker,Karen DeYoung&Michael Birnbaum,Trump Chastises Fellow NATO Members,Demands They Meet Payment Obligations,Washington Post,May 25,2017.
[116]J.Dana Stuster,Saudi Power Play Sends Shockwaves Abroad,Lawfare,November 14,2017,at https://www.lawfareblog.com/saudi-power-play-sendsshockwaves-abroad.
[117]参见Karen J.Alter&Kal Raustiala,The Rise of International Regime Complexity,Annual.Review of Law&Social Science,Vol.10,forthcoming 2018,available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3085043,at 10,描述制度更迭的策略。
[118]Bill Curry,The ABCs of TPP,Globe&Mail,October 5,2015.
[119]Eenerally United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,opened for signature December 10,1982,1833 UNTS 397.
[120]Miles Kahler,Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers,Int’l Organization,Vol.46,1992,p.681,694.
[121]Beth A.Simmons,Mobilizing for Human Rights:International Law in Domestic Politics,Cambridge University Press,2009.
[122]Simon Chesterman,The Spy Who Came in from the Cold War:Intelligence and International Law,Michigan Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.27,2006,p.1071,1098,然而值得注意的是,这些国家军服部队对政策提出了最强烈的抗议……;Tim Golden,Tough Justice:after Terror,a Secret Rewriting of Military Law,New York Times,October 24,2004,在美国“9·11”恐怖袭击事件后的几天里,军方律师基本上被排除在这一程序之外。此后,他们进行了长期斗争,以确保恐怖主义起诉符合他们所说的基本公平标准。
[123]James Macharia,South African Court Blocks Government’s ICC Withdrawal Bid,Reuters,February 22,2017.多边主义可能会被建构主义的国际化和社会化战略所支持,即使是理性主义的支持开始枯竭。但是这些策略可能是在一个时钟上。如果这个想法是把大量的国家带入一个政权,希望将它们的领导人和人民加入这个制度的规范中,这个过程就不会永远持续下去。这些准则需要在理性主义的转变与持续的成员关系之前锚定。
[124]参见JoséE.Alvarez,Multilateralism and Its Discontents,European Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.11,2000,p.393,394,多边主义是国际律师共同的世俗宗教。
[125]Jaya Ramji-Nogales,Designing Bespoke Transitional Justice:A Pluralist Process Approach,Michigan Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.32,2010,p.1.
[126]Timothy L.Meyer,How Local Discrimination Can Promote Global Public Goods,Boston University Law Review,Vol.95,2015,p.1937.
[127]参见JoséE.Alvarez,Multilateralism and Its Discontents,European Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.11,2000,p.399,强调多边解决方案的优点,倾向狭义理解为联合国模式下的自由制度,人为地限制了现代人权困境的可用处方范围。
[128]参见Dani Rodrik,The Globalization Paradox:Democracy and the Future of the World Economy,W.W.Norton&Company,2011,p.110,为国际经济秩序提供支持,使各州有更多空间规划自己的政策方向;参见Jaya Ramji-Nogales,Designing Bespoke Transitional Justice:A Pluralist Process Approach,Michigan Journal of International Law,Vol.31,2010,p.1,认为国际刑事司法的合法性取决于它对当地条件和需求的反映程度;Margaret M.deGuzman,The Global-Local Dilemma and ICC Legitimacy,in Legitimacy and International Courts,edited by Nienke Grossman,Harlan Grant Cohen,Andreas Follesdal&Geir Ulfstein(eds.),Cambridge University Press,2018。
[129]JoséE.Alvarez,Multilateralism and Its Discontents,European Journal of Int’l Law,Vol.11,2000,pp.393-394;Eric Stein,International Integration and Democracy:No Love at First Sight,American Journal of International Law,Vol.95,2001,p.489.
[130]Scott Barrett,Why Cooperate,Oxford University Press,2007.