10.8 药、糖、酒和蒸馏

10.8 药、糖、酒和蒸馏

 在古代和中世纪药学的最重要的部分,仅仅只是研磨、溶解、加热,或是对植物材质(草药)进行其他物理处理。但是,也有一些在配制时涉及化学变化(图339)。迪奥斯科里斯(Dioscorides,1世纪,图338)在他的《药物学》(De materia medica)里解释了怎样配制几种矿物药,例如烤铜即硫化铜(边码358)和铜绿(边码362),还第一次描述了对水银的提取。这部书早在14世纪就被翻译成拉丁语,在医药发展上有极其重要的影响。甚至现代科学的药典中包含的许多要素,也可以追溯到迪奥斯科里斯的著作。

哈拉夫·伊本·阿巴斯·扎赫拉维(Khalaf ibn‘Abbās al-Zahrāwī,卒于1013年)是西班牙的穆斯林,拉丁文名叫做阿尔布卡西斯(Albucasis)。13世纪时,他的《草药》(Liber servitoris)中的药单被翻译为拉丁语,具有很大的影响力,描述了对铅黄、铅白、硫化铅、硫化铜、镉、硫酸盐、氧化铁粉以及其他物质的配制。在阿拉伯语的世界里,有一本非常完整的关于药物的知名著作是伊本·拜塔尔(卒于1248年)所写的。16世纪以前,关于矿物药的配制的进步不是很明显,一直到出现了帕拉切尔苏斯(Paracelsus,1493?—1541)和他的学派,情况才有所改观。

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图338 药店。出自13世纪迪奥斯科里斯著作的阿拉伯译本。

下方:一个药剂师在火上的一个大锅中搅拌药,并为他面前的顾客盛满一杯药。上方:贮藏了许多药罐,另一边是一个人正在配制药。

糖类及其产物 [16]糖是唯一涉及化学配制的食品。它的存在从古典时期就已经知道了,但在欧洲直到12世纪或更晚一些的时期,由于受了伊斯兰教的影响才开始大量使用。糖这个词本身是从阿拉伯语中来的,阿拉伯人种植甘蔗,并把它传入了巴勒斯坦、西西里、西班牙和希腊诸岛。甘蔗汁被榨出来,并煮成半固体的东西。第一次从生甘蔗中提取出糖的时间还不是太清楚,但人们至少早在14世纪就会榨糖(图340)。在整个中世纪里,糖都是一种奢侈品,常用的调味剂和防腐剂是蜂蜜。

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图339 药店,出自13世纪的一部法文手稿。

(从左到右)坐在椅子上的人在一张放了其他药的圆桌上称药的分量,另一个坐着的人在一个臼里用两个杵捣药,一个容器里放着一些用小袋子装好的药,一个站着的人在架在火上的大锅里搅拌着一种混合物。上面的架子上是一系列细腰罐子。

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图340 糖的生产。

远处甘蔗种植园的甘蔗已被砍倒放上了驴背,将要运往制糖工场。在制糖工场,甘蔗被砍成短截,并铲到了篮子里,再把篮子里的甘蔗倒入水力驱动的水磨的漏斗里。甘蔗汁是手工压榨出来的,榨出来的汁倒入架在火上的锅中煮,以除去水分,然后用长柄勺把糖汁舀到锥形的模子里结晶,最后把糖块从模子里倒出来,并把待出售的锥形糖块陈列出来。出自斯特拉达尼斯(Stradanus)的《新发现》(Nova Reperta),威尼斯,1570年。

发酵的酒(第4章)和蒸馏(第21章)在其他的地方已经谈到过了。

相关文献和参考书目

还没有发现古典时期和中世纪的关于化学方法的综合性著作,下面提及的引自很多出处:

[1]Pliny Nat.hist.For everything in this work related to chemical industry and technology the best reference book is K.C.Bailey.‘The Elder Pliny's Chapters on Chemical Subjects’(2parts).Arnold,London.1929,1932.

[2]The contents of Graeco-Egyptian technical papyri at Leyden and Stockholm have been translated and annotated by E.R.Caley in J.chem.Educ.3,1149-66,1926;4,979-1002,1927.See also:P.E.M.Berthelot.‘Traités techniques(Traduction)’in‘Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs.’Troisième livraison,cinquième partie,pp.307-75.Steinheil,Paris.1888.

[3]Marcus Graecus Liber ignium adcomburendos hostes,translated and analysed by P.E.M.Berthelot.‘Histoire des Sciences.La chimie au moyen âge’,Vol.1,pp.89-135.Imprimerie Nationale,Paris 1893.

[4]Compositiones ad tingenda musiva.Its history is discussed by R.P.Johnson.‘Compositiones Variae from Codex 490,Bibliotheca Capitolare,Lucca’inⅢ.Stud.lang.lit.,Vol.23,no.3.University of Illinois Press,Urbana.1939.The most recent edition with German commentary and translation is by H.Hedfors.Compositiones ad tingenda musiva.Diss.,Uppsala.1932.

[5]“Mappae Clavicula,a Manuscript Treatise on the Preparation of Pigments and on the various Processes of the Decorative Arts practised during the Middle Ages”communicated by Sir Thomas Phillipps,ed.by A.Way in Archaeologia,32,183-244,1847.

[6]The most recent and reliable edition and German translation and commentary of the major part of the treatise is by W.Theobald.‘Technik des Kunsthandwerks im zehnten Jahrhundert.Des Theophilus Presbyter Diversarum artium schedula.’Verein deutscher Ingenieure,Berlin.1933.For a complete edition and translation see A.Ilg in Quell.Kunstgesch.Kunsttechn.,Vol.7.Braumüller,Vienna.1874.The first English translation was made by R.Hendrie.‘An Essay upon various Arts by Theophilus called also Rugerus.’Murray,London.1847.Another and more satisfcatory translation of the second book only is given in Appendix A of C.Winston.‘An Inquiry into the Difference of Style observable in Ancient Glass Paintings’(2nd ed.).Parker,Oxford.1867.

[7]Heraclius De coloribus et artibus Romanorum.Edition with German translation and commentary by A.Ilg.Quell.Kunstgesch.Kunsttechn.,Vol.4.Braumüller,Vienna.1873.An older edition with English translation by Mrs.M.Merrifield.‘Original treatises dating from the twelfth to the eighteenth Centuries on the Arts of Painting’,Vol.1,pp.166-257.Murray,London.1849.

[8]The Madrid Codex has been edited by J.M.Burnam.‘Recipes from CodexMatritensis A.16.’Palaeographic edition.University of Cincinnati Studies,second series,Vol.8.University Press,Cincinnati.1912.

[9]A short general survey of Latin alchemy with bibliography is given by F.Sherwood Taylor.‘The Alchemists.Founders of Modern Chemistry.’Schuman,New York.1949.Reissued Heinemann,London.1951.

[10]A preliminary attempt to list the later medieval texts on chemical technology has been made by D.V.Thompson.“Trial Index to some unpublished Sources for the History of Mediaeval Craftsmanship.”Speculum,10,410-31,1953

[11]The Liber Sacerdotum has been edited by P.E.M.Berthelot.‘Histoire des Sciences.La chimie au moyen âge’,Vol.1,pp.179-228.Imprimerie Nationale,Paris.1893.See also J.Ruska.‘Studien zu den chemisch-technischen Rezepten des Liber Sacerdotum.’Quell.Gesch.Naturw.,Vol.5,pp.83-125,275-317.Springer,Berlin.1936.

[12]Cennino's work has been edited and translated by D.V.Thompson.Cennino D'Andrea Cennini.‘Il Libro dell'Arte’(2vols).Yale University Press,New Haven.1932-3.Quotation from Vol.2,p.49(abbreviated).

[13]An English translation appeared in the seventeenth century,and was reprinted with an introduction by E.J.Holmyard.‘The Works of Geber,Englished by Richard Russell 1678.’Dent,London.1928.A bibliography of Arabic alchemical works which have much on the acids is by O.Temkin.“Medicine and Graeco-Arabic Alchemy.”Bull.Hist.Med.,29,149-55,1955.

[14]Neri,Antonio.‘L’Arte Vetraria distinta in libri sette.’Giunta,Florence.1612.(2nd rev.ed.Rabbviati,Florence.1661.)

[15]Several accessible books summarize the methods and materials of early painting,dyeing,and mordanting.We may mention:De Wild,A.M.‘The Scientific Examination of Pictures.’Trans.by L.C.Jackson.Bell,London.1929.Gettens,R.J.and Stout,G.L.‘Painting Materials.A short Encyclopaedia.’With an introduction by E.W,Forbes.Van Nostrand,New York.1942.Hiler,H.‘Notes on the Technique of Painting’(rev.ed.)Faber and Faber,London.1948.Hurry,J.B.‘The Woad Plant and its Dye.’Oxford University Press,London.1930.Laurie,A.P.‘The Technique of the Great Painters.’Carroll and Nicholson,London.1949.Singer,C.‘The Earliest Chemical Industry.’Folio Society,London.1948.Thompson,D.V.‘The Materials of Medieval Painting.’Allen and Unwin,London.1936.

[16]On sugar see:Deerr,N.F.‘The History of Sugar.’Chapman and Hall,London.1949-50.Lippmann,E.O.von.‘Geschichte des Zuckers.’Hesse,Leipzig.1890.