四、结论
这里提供的一些简短的建议只是一个开始,但希望它是法学教育改革更广泛对话的开始。“理论可以与实践相分离”的谬误以及对理论教学与专业技能培养本质的误解,长期以来一直阻碍改革的进行。当前正是让法学教育挣脱这种局限性思想的有利时机。对此,首先要做到的便是承认传统的案例教学方法中大量的专业技能成分,以及专业技能教育中大量的理论知识成分。一旦法学院认识到案例教学法与其他形式的体验式教育方法在教学结构上的连续性,他们就有可能开发和重新部署现有的教师资源、时间和资金,以更好地教育法学学生从事法律实践。
(编辑:吕玉赞)
[1]原文发表于McGeorge Law Review,Vol.45,2013,pp.7-50。
凯瑟琳·R.克鲁斯,法学教授、威斯康星大学法学院体验式教育与课程副院长,欧柏林大学文学学士,威斯康星大学麦迪逊分校(1986)哲学硕士,哈姆莱大学法学院博士。
[2]石文静,女,烟台大学法学院硕士研究生,研究方向为法学教育与法律方法。对于这种法学教育批判历史的全面审查可以追溯到19世纪末。参见Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,p.1949,1982-2015。
[3]Karl Llewellyn,“On What's Wrong with So-Called Legal Education”,Colum.L.Rev.,Vol.35,1935,pp.651-662.
[4]石文静,女,烟台大学法学院硕士研究生,研究方向为法学教育与法律方法。对于这种法学教育批判历史的全面审查可以追溯到19世纪末。参见Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,p.1949,1982-2015。
[5]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.74-84.同年,诊所式法律教育协会(Clinical Legal Education Association)出版了一本书,介绍了规划和实施全面法律教育项目的最佳做法。
[6]Brian Z.Tamanaha,“the crisis in legal education”p.18-19(John M.Conley&Lynn Mather eds.,2011)(讨论鉴定的高成本);Brent E.New ton,“The Ninety-Five Theses:Systemic Reforms of American Legal Education and Licensure”,S.C.L.Rev.,Vol.64,2012,p.55,59-60;Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,pp.1951-56。
[7]Todd Petys,“The Analytic Classroom”,Buff.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2012,pp.1255,1256-58.
[8]Mark Spiegel,“Theory and Practice in Legal Education:An Essay on Clinical Education”,Uclal.Rev.,Vol.34,1987,p.577.
[9]Mark Spiegel,“Theory and Practice in Legal Education:An Essay on Clinical Education”,Uclal Rev.,Vol.34,1987,p.578.
[10]Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,p.1949,2022-23.
[11]参见本文第一部分的第一方面。
[12]Mark Spiegel,“Theory and Practice in Legal Education:An Essay on Clinical Education”,Uclal.Rev.,Vol.34,1987,p.578.
[13]参见下文第一部分的第一方面。
[14]参见下文第二部分的第二方面。
[15]参见下文第二部分的第三方面至第四方面。
[16]参见下文第三部分的第一方面。
[17]参见下文第二部分的第二方面。
[18]Mark Spiegel,“Theory and Practice in Legal Education:An Essay on Clinical Education”,Uclal.Rev.,Vol.34,1987,p.577.
[19]参见下文第一部分的第二方面。
[20]Robert Stevens,“law school:legal education in America from the 1850s to the 1980s(1983)”.
[21]见本文53页至54页;Thomas C.Grey,“Langdell's Orthodoxy”,U.Prtt.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1983,p.1,11.
[22]William Twining,“Karl Llewellyn and the realistmovement”,1973,pp.11-13.
[23]Thomas C.Grey,“Langdell's Orthodoxy”,U.Prtt.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1983,p.1,13.(引用哥伦布朗德尔(Christopher Columbus Langdell)的著作,a selection of cases on the law of contracts(2d ed.1879))。
[24]Christopher Columbus Langdell,“Harvard Celebration Speeches”,Law Quarterly Rev.,Vol.3,1887,p.123,124.
[25]Thomas C.Grey,“Langdell's Orthodoxy”,U.Prtt.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1983,p.13.(引用哥伦布朗德尔(Christopher Columbus Langdell)的著作,“a selection of cases on the law of contracts(2d ed.1879)”。
[26]见本文第11页至12页。
[27]OliverWendell Holmes,“The Common Law”,JR.,Vol.1,1881.See also Oliver Wendell Holmes,“The Path of the Law”,Harv.L.Rev.,Vol.10,1897,p.457,465.
[28]Brian Lieter称其为法律现实主义的“核心主张”。Brian Leiter,“Rethinking Legal Realism:Toward a Naturalized Jurisprudenc”,Tex.L.Rev.,Vol.76,1997,p.267,275-76。
[29]Karl Llewellyn,“Some Realism about Legal Realism-Responding to Dean Pound”,Harv.L.Rev.,Vol.44,1931,p.1222,1236-42;Joseph C.Hucheson,Jr.,“The Judgment Intuitive:The Function of the‘Hunch'in Judicial Decision”,Cornell L.Q,Vol.14,1928,p.274.
[30]See OliverWendell Holmes,“The Path of the Law”,Harv.L.Rev.,Vol.10,1897,p.457.
[31]Jerome Frank,“Law and themodern mind”,x-xi(1930).
[32]Gary Shaw,“A Heretical View of Teaching:A Contrarian Looks at Teaching,the Carnegie Report,and Best Practice”,TouRo L.Rev.,Vol.28,2012,p.1239,1259-62.
[33]SeeWilliam M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.23-24.
[34]Gary Shaw,“A Heretical View of Teaching:A Contrarian Looks at Teaching,the Carnegie Report,and Best Practice”,TouRo L.Rev.,Vol.28,2012,p.1239,1259-62.
[35]H.L.A.Hart,“the concept of law”,1961,pp.134-47.
[36]法律现实主义与其较近的学术成果,如法经济学、批判法学、法社会学等,都从外部和行为的角度来看待法律,所有这些研究都着眼于社会科学研究的外部力量对法律的影响。Gary Minda,“The Jurisprudential Movements of the 1980s”,Ohio ST.LJ,Vol.50,1989,p.599,632-38(探究批判性法学、法经济学以及女权主义法律理论);Anthony Kronman,“Jurisprudential Responses to Legal Realism”,Cornell L.Rev.,Vol.73,1988,p.335,335-4.讨论批判性法学、法经济学以此回应法律现实主义);see generally Stewart Macaulay,“The New Versus the Old Legal Realism:‘Things Ain'tWhat They Used to Be'”,Wis.L.Rev.,Vol.2005,p.365.(在法律现实主义中探究法社会学的起源)。
[37]See Thomas J.Miles&Cass R.Sunstein,“The New Legal Realism”,U.Chi.L.Rev.,Vol.75,p.831,838-39(2008)(总结了“新现实主义法学”在人口因素方面对司法决策的影响)。
[38]See Todd D.Rakoff&Martha Minow,“A Case for Another Case Method”,Vand.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2007,p.597,599.(阐述了逼真的案例研究法与实践经受住“法律科学”的现实主义批判的原因)。
[39]这种重要的转变发生在二十世纪初,See Mark Spiegel,“Theory and Practice in Legal Education:An Essay on Clinical Education”,Uclal.Rev.,Vol.34,1987,pp.582-583。
[40]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.54-55.
[41]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.64-66.
[42]ABA model rules of Prof'l conduct,R.1.1,cm t.2(“或许最基本的法律技能在于明确某项法律问题所处的环境,这种技能优于任何特定的专业知识。”)。
[43]Todd Petys,“The Analytic Classroom”,Buff.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2012,pp.1284-91.(纵向的实证研究得出,法律专业学生的法律分析能力在在法学院的第二年或第三年中得到提升)。
[44]Todd Petys,“The Analytic Classroom”,Buff.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2012,pp.1270-71;Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,pp.2034-35.But see Gary Shaw,“A Heretical View of Teaching:A Contrarian Looks at Teaching,the Carnegie Report,and Best Practice”,TouRo L.Rev.,Vol.28,2012,pp.1291-93(主张在第二年和第三年继续采用作用有所减弱的苏格拉底式方法)。
[45]Gary Shaw,“A Heretical View of Teaching:A Contrarian Looks at Teaching,the Carnegie Report,and Best Practice”,TouRo L.Rev.,Vol.28,2012,pp.1267-69.
[46]Alfred Z.Reed,“training for the public profession of the law”,1921,p.223.
[47]Karl L.Llewellyn,“The Current Crisis in Legal Education”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.1,1948,p.211,215.Llewellyn的看法在美国法律协会课程委员会的1944年报告中得以展现,“The Place of Skills in Legal Education”,Colum.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1945,p.345。
[48]Todd Petys,“The Analytic Classroom”,Buff.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2012,pp.1272-73.
[49]Todd Petys,“The Analytic Classroom”,Buff.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2012,pp.1272-73.
[50]Sanford H.Kadish,“Fifty Years of Criminal Law:An Opinionated Review”,Cal.L.Rev.,Vol.87,1999,p.943,947-53.(描述了模范刑法典的主要影响在于激励辖区编纂自己的刑法典,将学术界的关注焦点从普通法重新定位到刑法的立法,并明确犯罪目的原则)。
[51]See generally Dannye Holley,“The Influence of the Model Penal Code's Culpability Provisions on State Legislatures:A Study of Lost Opportunities,Including Abolishing the Mistake of Fact Doctrine”,Sw.U.L.Rev.,Vol.27,1997,p.229.(对于犯意的调查源自于22个州)。
[52]See Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,pp.2034-35.(探讨案例教学法的作用在前几年逐渐消减)。
[53]William P.Quigley,“Introduction to Clinical Teaching for the New Clinical Law Professor:A View from the First Floor”,Akron L.Rev.,Vol.28,1995,p.463,469-70.
[54]在考虑律师执业解决具体争议的特定情形下,案例教学法也缺乏对当事人的交易规划,这在上文第一部分的第二方面的第三点中有所提及。
[55]Stefan H.Krieger,ET AL.,“essential lawyering skills:interviewing,counseling,negotiation and persuasive fact analysis”,4th ed.2011,pp.3-4.
[56]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.,“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.57.
[57]Ann Shalleck,“Constructions of the ClientWithin Legal Education”,Stan.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1993,p.1731,1735.
[58]Ann Shalleck,“Constructions of the ClientWithin Legal Education”,Stan.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1993,p.1733.
[59]Ann Shalleck,“Constructions of the ClientWithin Legal Education”,Stan.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1993,p.1735.
[60]Ann Shalleck,“Constructions of the ClientWithin Legal Education”,Stan.L.Rev.,Vol.45,1993,p.1736.也可参见model rules of Prof'l conduct,R.1.2,cm t.2。
[61]Richard Wasserstrom,“Lawyers as Professionals:Some Moral Issues”,Hum.Rts.,Vol.5,1975,p.1,21.
[62]William H.Simon,“The Ideology of Advocacy”,Wis.L.Rev.,Vol.1978,1978,p.29,55;Warren Lehman,“The Pursuit of a Client's Interests”,Mich.L.Rev.,Vol.77,1979,p.1078,1087-88.
[63]See e.g.,Austin Sarat&William L.F.felstiner,“divorce lawyers and their clients:power andmeaning in the legal process”,1995,p.142-53(和离婚律师学会与当事人交流);Tamara Relis,“It's Not About the Money!:A Theory on Misconceptions of Plaintiffs'Litigation Aims”,U.Prrr.L.REv.,Vol.68,2007,p.701(调查医疗事故的律师和当事人);Lynn Mather,“What Do Clients Want?What Do Lawyers Do?”,Emoryl.J.,Vol.52,2003,p.1065,1071-81(对刑事辩护、离婚、人身伤害、财产民事权利、公司律师等律师-当事人关系的实证研究)。
[64]See e.g.,Austin Sarat&William L.F.felstiner,“divorce lawyers and their clients:power andmeaning in the legal process”,1995,p.37.
[65]Tamara Relis,“It's Not About the Money:A Theory on Misconceptions of Plaintiffs'Litigation Aims”,U.Prrr.L.REv.,Vol.68,2007,p.346.
[66]David A.Binder,ET AL.,“lawyers as counselors:a client-centered approach”,2d ed.1991,pp.2-15.
[67]Katherine R.Kruse,“Beyond Cardboard Clients in Legal Ethics”,Geo.J.legal ethics,Vol.23,2010,p.103,132-34.
[68]See Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,pp.2037-38.
[69]John Luebsdorf,“The Structure of Legal Opinions”,Minn.L.Rev.,Vol.86,2001,p.447;Ron Moss,“Rhetorical Strategems in Judicial Opinions”,scribe,Vol.2,1991,p.103,105-07.
[70]Christopher P.Gilkerson,“Poverty Law Narratives:The Critical Practice and Theory of Receiving and Translating Client Stories”,Hastings L.J.,Vol.43,1992,p.861.
[71]Stefan H.Krieger,ET AL.,“essential lawyering skills:interviewing,counseling,negotiation and persuasive fact analysis”,4th ed.2011,pp.149-57.
[72]Jean Stem light&Jennifer Robbennalt,“Good Lawyers Should Be Good Psychologists:Insights for Interview ing and Counseling Clients”,Ohio ST.J.Dispute resol.,Vol.23,2008,p.437,448-86.
[73]Edward D.Ohlbaum,“Basic Instinct:‘Case Theory and Courtroom Performance'”,Templel.Rev.,Vol.66,1993,p.1,18-23(列出其他提升案件理论说服力的因素).也可参阅Naomi Cahn,“Inconsistent Stories”,Geo.L.J,Vol.81,1993,p.2475。
[74]Jerome Frank,“Say itwith Music”,Harv.L.Rev.,Vol.61,1948,p.921,924.
[75]Steven lubet,“nothing but the truth:why trial lawyers don't,can't,and shouldn'thave to tell thewhole truth”,2001,pp.1-6;Edward D.Ohlbaum,“Basic Instinct:‘Case Theory and Courtroom Performance'”,Templel.Rev.,Vol.66,1993,pp.24-25;Binny Miller,“Give Them Back Their Lives:Recognizing Client Narrative in Case Theory”,Mich.L.Rev.,Vol.93,1994,p.485.
[76]Old Chief v.United States,U.S.,Vol.519,1997,p.172,189.
[77]Old Chief v.United States,U.S.,Vol.519,1997,p.187;也可参阅Toni M.Massaro,“Empathy,Legal Storytelling,and The Rule of Law:New Words,Old Wounds”,Mich.L.Rev.,Vol.87,1989,p.2099。
[78]Aristotle,“on rhetoric 1.2 in Aristotle:on rhetoric,a theory of civic discourse”pp.38-39(George A.Kennedy,trans.1991).
[79]Toni M.Massaro,“Empathy,Legal Storytelling,and The Rule of Law:New Words,Old Wounds”,Mich.L.Rev.,Vol.87,1989,p.2105.
[80]Steven L.Winter,“The Cognitive Dimension of the Agon Between Legal Power and Narrative Meaning”,Mich.L.Rev.,Vol.87,1989,p.2225,2228.
[81]Binny Miller,,“Teaching Case Theory”,clinical L.Rev.,Vol.9,2002,p.293,297-98.
[82]Anthony G.Amsterdam&Randy Hertz,“An Analysis of Closing Arguments to a Jury”,N.Y.L.Sch.L.Rev.Vol.37,1992,p.55,64-65.
[83]Linda H.Edwards,“Once Upon a Time in Law:Myth,Metaphor,and Authority”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.77,2010,p.883,886-90.
[84]See Todd D.Rakoff&Martha Minow,“A Case for Another Case Method”,Vand.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2007,p.601.
[85]Karl L.Llewellyn,“The Current Crisis in Legal Education”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.1,1948,pp.213-14.
[86]Shreya Atrey,“O‘The Damn Good Deal Lawyer'Where Art Thou?”,T.M.Cooley J.Prac.&Clinical.,Vol.13,2011,p.331,337-38.
[87]GeorgeW.Dent,Jr.,“Business Lawyers as Enterprise Architects”,Bus.Law.,Vol.64,2009,p.279,289-90.
[88]GeorgeW.Dent,Jr.,“Business Lawyers as Enterprise Architects”,Bus.Law.,Vol.64,2009,p.297.
[89]在这个领域内的权威作品可以参照,Ronald J.Gilson,“Value Creation by Business Lawyers:Legal Skills and Asset Pricing”,Yale L.J.,Vol.94,1984,p.239.他主张律师主要通过扮演“交易成本工程师”的角色来为交易增加价值,具体可参见第243页。还可参见George W.Dent,Jr.,“Business Lawyers as Enterprise Architects”,Bus.Law.,Vol.64,2009.(George的观点使得Gilson开始重点关注律师在企业收购中的角色,Gilson号召应该对商业律师角色进行更广泛的定义,他们还是“企业架构师”)Steven L.Schwarcz,“Explaining the Value of Transactional Lawyering”,Stan.J.L.Bus.&FIN.,Vol.12,2007,p.486(实证检验Gilson关于律师如何为交易增加价值的假设)。Edward A.Bernstein,“Law&Economics and the Structure of Value Adding Contracts:A Contract Lawyer's View of the Law&Economics Literature”,OR.L.Rev.,Vol.74,1995,p.189,198-200(提供交易律师对Gilson论题的看法)。
[90]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.221,222.
[91]Shreya Atrey,“O‘The Damn Good Deal Lawyer'Where Art Thou?”,T.M.Cooley J.Prac.&Clinical.,Vol.13,2011,p.340;Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.475,479.
[92]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.429,431;Stephen J.Friedman,“Why Can't Law Students Be More Like Lawyers?”,U.Tol.L.Rev.,Vol.37,2005,p.81,87-88.
[93]Shreya Atrey,“O‘The Damn Good Deal Lawyer'Where Art Thou?”,T.M.Cooley J.Prac.&Clinical.,Vol.13,2011,p.341;Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004,p.223,223-24.
[94]Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004,p.224.
[95]Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004,p.225.
[96]Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004,p.229.
[97]Ronald J.Gilson,“Value Creation by Business Lawyers:Legal Skills and Asset Pricing”,Yale L.J.,Vol.94,1984,p.191.
[98]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.482.
[99]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.478.
[100]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.434.
[101]George W.Dent,Jr.,“Business Lawyers as Enterprise Architects”,Bus.Law.,Vol.64,2009,p.319.Celeste M.Hammond,“Borrow ing from the B Schools:The Legal Case Study as Course Materials for Transaction Oriented Elective Courses:A Response to the Challenges of the MacCrate Report and the Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching Report on Legal Education”,transactions:Tenn.J.Bus.L.,Vol.11,2009,p.9,12-13.
[102]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.430.
[103]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.225.
[104]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An A lternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.221.
[105]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.452.
[106]Ronald J.Gilson,“Value Creation by Business Lawyers:Legal Skills and Asset Pricing”,Yale L.J.,Vol.94,1984,pp.241-42.
[107]Stephen J.Friedman,“Why Can't Law Students Be More Like Lawyers?”,U.Tol.L.Rev.,Vol.37,2005,p.89.
[108]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.483.
[109]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479;Ronald J.Gilson,“Value Creation by Business Lawyers:Legal Skills and Asset Pricing”,Yale L.J.,Vol.94,1984,p.501.(基于实证研究的发现,“交易型律师通过执行交易-监管法律工作:提供通常管理交易的法律和法规方面的专业知识,以及理解交易文件中合同条款的基本原理,减少了监管成本,并因此增加了价值”)。
[110]Edward A.Bernstein,“Law&Economics and the Structure of Value Adding Contracts:A Contract Lawyer's View of the Law&Economics Literature”,OR.L.Rev.,Vol.74,1995,p.191,193.
[111]GeorgeW.Dent,Jr.,“Business Lawyers as Enterprise Architects”,Bus.Law.,Vol.64,2009,p.311.(引用James C.freund,“smart negotiating:how to make good deals in the real world”,1992,p.186)。
[112]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.486.
[113]卡耐基报告称其为“法律专业教育的三学徒”。William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.27-29。
[114]See Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,p.2025.也可参阅William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.194-97;最好的实践调查报告,William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.97-100。
[115]See Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,p.2025.
[116]See Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,pp.2025-26.
[117]Karl L.Llewellyn,“The Current Crisis in Legal Education”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.1,1948,p.216.
[118]Karl L.Llewellyn,“The Current Crisis in Legal Education”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.1,1948,pp.366-67.
[119]See Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,p.2058.
[120]Mark Spiegel,“Theory and Practice in Legal Education:An Essay on Clinical Education”,Uclal.Rev.,Vol.34,1987,pp.582-83;Spencer,See Benjamin Spencer,“The Law School Critique in Historical Perspective”,Wash.&Leel.Rev.,Vol.69,2012,p.1977.
[121]J.P.Ogilvy,“learning from practices:a profession development next for legal externs”,2d ed.2007,p.3;Kenneth R.Kreiling,“Clinical Education and Lawyer Competency:The Process of Learning to Learn from Experience through Properly Structured Clinical Supervision”,MD.L.Rev.,Vol.40,1981,p.279,285.
[122]Richard K.Neumann,Jr.,DonaldS chon,“The Reflective Practitionera,nd the Comparative Failures of Legal Education”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.6,2000,p.401,415-17.
[123]Richard K.Neumann,Jr.,DonaldS chon,“The Reflective Practitionera,nd the Comparative Failures of Legal Education”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.6,2000,pp.404-12.
[124]美国律师协会、法律教育部门和法律考试部门,对法律学校以及法律行业进行了汇报:法学教育以及职业发展应当保持连续性,缩小差距。——法学教育的连续性,可参照下文1992年的麦克特报告(MacCrate report)的第243页。
[125]Stefan H.Krieger,ET AL.,“essential lawyering skills:interviewing,counseling,negotiation and persuasive fact analysis”,4th ed.2011,pp.149-57.
[126]Peter Toll Hoffman,“Clinical Course Design and the Supervisory Process”,ARiz.ST.L.J.,Vol.1982,1982,p.277,279-81.
[127]Gary Shaw,“A Heretical View of Teaching:A Contrarian Looks at Teaching,the Carnegie Report,and Best Practice”,TouRo L.Rev.,Vol.28,2012,pp.1281-85.
[128]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.61.
[129]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.61-62.
[130]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.61-62.
[131]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.60-63.
[132]Michael Hunter Schwartz,“Teaching Lw by Design:How Learning Theory and Instructional Design Can Inform and Reform Law Teaching”,San Diego L.Rev.,Vol.38,2001,p.347,351.
[133]Todd Petys,“The Analytic Classroom”,Buff.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2012,p.1274.
[134]Gary Shaw,“A Heretical View of Teaching:A Contrarian Looks at Teaching,the Carnegie Report,and Best Practice”,TouRo L.Rev.,Vol.28,2012,pp.1278-85.
[135]See Mark Spiegel,“Theory and Practice in Legal Education:An Essay on Clinical Education”,Uclal.Rev.,Vol.34,1987.(认为理论教学与法律诊所式教学是理论与实践的结合)。
[136]William Blackstone,“commentaries on the laws of England”,1765-1769,sec.1(Lonang Institute 2005),available athttp://www.lonang.com lexlibris/blackstone/bla-001.htm(on filewith theMcGeorge Law Review)(emphasis added).
[137]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.62;David A.Binder&Paul Bergman,“Taking Lawyering SkillsTraining Seriously”,Vol.10,Clin.L.Rev.,2003,p.191,199.
[138]Richard K.Neumann,Jr.,DonaldS chon,“The Reflective Practitionera,nd the Comparative Failures of Legal Education”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.6,2000,pp.401-03.
[139]Donald A.Schon,“Educating the Reflective Legal Practitioner”,Clinical L.Rev.Vol.2,1995,p.231,247.
[140]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.59.
[141]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.364-65.
[142]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.365.
[143]William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.365.
[144]Robert Stevens,“law school:legal education in America from the 1850s to the 1980s(1983)”,pp.205-31.
[145]在1968年至1978年间福得基金会向CLEPR提供了1100万美金来支持法学教育中的法律诊所项目。可参见Margaret Martin Barry,et al.,Clinical Legal Education for This Millennium:The Third Wave,Clinical L.Rev.Vol.7,2000,p.1,19.同时,教育部门在1978年至1997年在福得基金会停止资助后提供了800万美元支持该项目。
[146]对于早期教科书重要性以及影响力的描述,可见Susan Bryant&Elliott S.Milstein,“Reflections upon the 25th Anniversary of The Lawyering Process:An Introduction to the Symposium”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.10,2003,p.1。
[147]Michael Meltsner,“Celebrating The Lawyering Process”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.10,2003,p.327;Bea Moulton,“In Memoriam:Gary Bellow”,Harv.L.Rev.Vol.114,2000,p.416,420.
[148]Gary Bellow&Earl Johnson,“Reflections on the University of Southern California Clinical Semester”,S.Cal.L.Rev.,Vol.44,1971,p.664,673.(https://www.daowen.com)
[149]Bea Moulton,“Looking Back at The Lawyering Process”,Clin.L.Rev.,Vol.10,2003,p.33,50-51;Bea Moulton,“In Memoriam:Gary Bellow”,Harv.L.Rev.Vol.114,2000,p.419.
[150]Carrie Menkel-Meadow,“The Legacy of Clinical Education”,Clev.ST.L.Rev.,Vol.29,1980,p.555(研究潜在的不同方法以及律师的执业历程);专业研讨会:盖里·贝洛与贝亚·莫尔顿合著的《律师执业生涯》的25周年纪念”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.10,2003,p.1,et seq.(通过法律诊所式教科书作者的研讨会,来探讨律师的执业过程)。
[151]麦克特报告(MacCrate report)第138-41页。
[152]Bea Moulton,“Looking Back at The Lawyering Process”,Clin.L.Rev.,Vol.10,2003,p.35.
[153]Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004;Karl S.Okamoto,“Teaching Transactional Lawyering”,Drexel L.Rev.,Vol.1,2009,p.69;Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002.
[154]Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004,pp.229-31.(提取某些经常反复提及的问题——金钱、风险、控制、标准以及残局,她曾经制定了“五管齐下框架”的教学方法,教导法学学生如何分析一个在交易中可能出现的问题);Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,pp.483-90(讨论Gilson改编的“交易成本工程”模型用于达成交易的技能课程)。
[155]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.491.
[156]Brent E.New ton,“The Ninety-Five Theses:Systemic Reforms of American Legal Education and Licensure”,S.C.L.Rev.,Vol.64,2012,p.112;Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479.
[157]Karl L.Llewellyn,“The Current Crisis in Legal Education”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.1,1948,p.211,215.365.
[158]Karl L.Llewellyn,“The Current Crisis in Legal Education”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.1,1948,p.211,215.365.
[159]Stefan H.Krieger,“Domain Know ledge and the Teaching of Creative Problem Solving”,Vol.11,Clinical L.Rev.,2004,p.149,167.
[160]Stefan H.Krieger,“Domain Know ledge and the Teaching of Creative Problem Solving”,Vol.11,Clinical L.Rev.,2004,p.149,167;Stephen Ellman ET AL.,“lawyers and clients:critical issues in interview ing and counseling”,2009,p.353.
[161]Stefan H.Krieger,“Domain Know ledge and the Teaching of Creative Problem Solving”,Vol.11,Clinical L.Rev.,2004,p.168;Ian Weinstein,“Lawyering in the State of Nature:Instinct and Automaticity in Legal Problem Solving”,VT.L.Rev.,Vol.23,1998,p.1,24-26.
[162]Donald A.Schon,“Educating the Reflective Legal Practitioner”,Clinical L.Rev.Vol.2,1995,p.243.
[163]Stephen Ellman ET AL.,“lawyers and clients:critical issues in interview ing and counseling”,2009,p.351;Ian Weinstein,“Lawyering in the State of Nature:Instinct and Automaticity in Legal Problem Solving”,VT.L.Rev.,Vol.23,1998,p.26.
[164]Gary Shaw,“A Heretical View of Teaching:A Contrarian Looks at Teaching,the Carnegie Report,and Best Practice”,TouRo L.Rev.,Vol.28,2012,p.1298.
[165]Bea Moulton,“Looking Back at The Lawyering Process”,Clin.L.Rev.,Vol.10,2003,p.50;Gary Bellow&Earl Johnson,“Reflections on the University of Southern California Clinical Semester”,S.Cal.L.Rev.,Vol.44,1971,p.673.
[166]Bea Moulton,“Looking Back at The Lawyering Process”,Clin.L.Rev.,Vol.10,2003,p.46.
[167]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479;Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004,p.228.
[168]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479.
[169]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479;Tina L.Stark,“Thinking Like a Deal Lawyer”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.54,2004,p.228.多年来,Karl Okamoto通过非正式询问律师“是什么使得他们在自己的领域内做的出色”而获得相同的答案;Karl S.Okamoto,“Teaching Transactional Lawyering”,Drexel L.Rev.,Vol.1,2009,pp.70-71。
[170]Stacy Caplow,A Year in Practice:The Journal of a Reflective Clinician,3 Clin.L.Rev.1,2-3(1996).
[171]Stacy Caplow,A Year in Practice:The Journal of a Reflective Clinician,3 Clin.L.Rev.1,2-3(1996).
[172]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002;
[173]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,pp.491-92.(讲述了作者上半年的交易课堂中,学生学习达成交易的理论框架;在下半年,学生通过分析学习真实的交易,然后从律师或者参与交易的本人处获得反馈);Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An A lternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,pp.234-37(描述由兼职教授参与并附加实体法律课程的交易型实践实验室);Karl S.Okamoto,“Teaching Transactional Lawyering”,Drexel L.Rev.,Vol.1,2009,pp.87-90(描述了交易型法律课程,其中包涵教授教导学生模拟概念框架,而后执业律师使用该方法提供处理问题的模拟示范)。
[174]See“ABA section of legal education and admissions to the bar,a survey of law Scool curricula:1992-2002”,2004,pp.13-16,available at http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/legaled/publications/curriculumsurvey/CurriculumSurvey.authcheckdam.pdf[hereinafter ABA 2002 Curriculum Study](on file with the M c-George Law Review).
[175]法学院的高阶课程中非结构化的选修课已经越来越多。See See“ABA section of legal education and admissions to the bar,a survey of law Scool curricula:1992-2002”,2004;“ABA section of legal education and admissions to the bar,a survey of law Scool curricula:2001-2010”,2012,Executive Summary 15-16,available at http://www.abanow.org/wordpress/wp-content/filesflutter/1341346391LawSchoolCurriculaSurveyExecSummary.pdf[hereinafter Executive Summary of ABA 2012 Curriculum Study](on file with the M cGeorge Law Review)。
[176]Brent E.New ton,“The Ninety-Five Theses:Systemic Reforms of American Legal Education and Licensure”,S.C.L.Rev.,Vol.64,2012,p.87.
[177]Brent E.New ton,“The Ninety-Five Theses:Systemic Reforms of American Legal Education and Licensure”,S.C.L.Rev.,Vol.64,2012,p.87.
[178]现行标准要求在“其他通常被认为是有效和负责任地参与法律职业所必需的专业技能”方面提供“大量指导”。ABA standards for accreditation of law schools 2012-2013,Standard 302(4),available at http://www.americanbar.org/groupslegal-education/resources/standards.html.一直以来,美国律师协会对“实质性”的解释都被解释为,技能指导必须“让每个学生参与技能表现,并由导师评估”,而不是某个特定的学分。ABA standards for accreditation of law schools 2012-2013,Interpretation 302-3,available at http://www.americanbar.org/groupslegaleducation/resources/standards.html(on file with the M cGeorge Law Review)。
[179]ABA standards review comm.,April'13 SRC Meeting Materials 54(April 2013),54(April 2013),http://www.americanbar.org/content/dami/aba/migrated/2011-build/legaleducation/committees/standards reviewdocuments/april-2013/2013-aprsrcmeetingagendaanddrafts.authcheckdam.pdf(on file with the McGeorge Law Review).
[180]Roy Stuckey,“Teaching with Purpose:Defining and Achieving Desired Outcomes in Clinical Law Courses”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.13,2007,p.807,812.
[181]最好的实践报告,参见William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.181。
[182]Roy Stuckey,“Teaching with Purpose:Defining and Achieving Desired Outcomes in Clinical Law Courses”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.13,2007;也可参见最好的实践报告,William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.179-80。
[183]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.442.
[184]Jay M.Feinman,“Simulations:An Introduction”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.45,1995,p.469,470;William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.179-80.
[185]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.442.
[186]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.442.
[187]Report of the Committee on the Future of the In-House Clinic,J.Legal Educ.Vol.42,1992,p.508,511;最好的实践报告,William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.188-89;Elliott Milstein,“Clinical Legal Education in the United States:In-House Clinics,Externships,and Simulations”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.51,2001,p.375,376。
[188]Elliott Milstein,“Clinical Legal Education in the United States:In-House Clinics,Externships,and Simulations”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.51,2001,p.376.
[189]Report of the Committee on the Future of the In-House Clinic,J.Legal Educ.Vol.42,1992,p.511.
[190]Report of the Committee on the Future of the In-House Clinic,J.Legal Educ.Vol.42,1992,p.512.
[191]Karen Tokarz,et al.,“Legal Education and the Legal Profession in Crisis:The Need for a New Law School Curriculum with Expanded Experiential Legal Education and Clinical Courses for All Law Students”,Wash.U.J.L.&Pol'y,Vol.43,forthcoming 2013.
[192]Peter Toll Hoffman,“Clinical Course Design and Supervisory Process”,Ariz.ST.L.J.Vol.1982,1982,p.277,283-89.
[193]ElliottMilstein,“Clinical Legal Education in the United States:In-House Clinics,Externships,and Simulations”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.51,2001,p.377.
[194]ElliottMilstein,“Clinical Legal Education in the United States:In-House Clinics,Externships,and Simulations”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.51,2001,p.378;Kenneth R.Kreiling,“Clinical Education and Lawyer Competency:The Process of Learning to Learn from Experience through Properly Structured Clinical Supervision”,MD.L.Rev.,Vol.40,1981,pp.301-11.
[195]Peter Toll Hoffman,“The Stages of the Clinical Supervisory Relationship”,Antioch L.J.,Vol.4,1986,p.301(描述了法律诊所的多种监督使用方法以及他们在学生进步中的作用)。
[196]Susan Bryant&Elliott S.Milstein,“Rounds:A‘Signature Pedagogy'for Clinical Education?”Clin.L.Rev.,Vol.14,2007,p.195.
[197]William P.Quigley,“Introduction to Clinical Teaching for the New Clinical Law Professor:A View from the First Floor”,Akron L.Rev.,Vol.28,1995,p.488.
[198]Elliott Milstein,“Clinical Legal Education in the United States:In-House Clinics,Externships,and Simulations”,J.Legal Educ.Vol.51,2001,p.376.
[199]Roy Stuckey,“Teaching with Purpose:Defining and Achieving Desired Outcomes in Clinical Law Courses”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.13,2007,p.812.
[200]Roy Stuckey,“Teaching with Purpose:Defining and Achieving Desired Outcomes in Clinical Law Courses”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.13,2007,pp.811-12.
[201]J.P.Ogilvy,“learning from practices:a profession development next for legal externs”,2d ed.2007.
[202]J.P.Ogilvy,“learning from practices:a profession development next for legal externs”,2d ed.2007,pp.11-14.
[203]J.P.Ogilvy,“learning from practices:a profession development next for legal externs”,2d ed.2007,pp.199-203.
[204]J.P.Ogilvy,“learning from practices:a profession development next for legal externs”,2d ed.2007,p.3;最好的实践调查报告,William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.198-99。
[205]Report of the Committee on the Future of the In-House Clinic,J.Legal Educ.Vol.42,1992,p.511.
[206]Susan L.Brooks,“Meeting the Professional Identity Challenge in Legal Education Through a Relationship-Centered Experiential Curriculum”,U.Balt.L.Rev.,Vol.41,2012,p.395,412-13.
[207]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,pp.441-42.
[208]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.441-46.(描述了在理论课程中通过模拟传授交易型法律知识的一系列不同方法)。
[209]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,pp.485-86.
[210]Susan L.Brooks,“Meeting the Professional Identity Challenge in Legal Education Through a Relationship-Centered Experiential Curriculum”,U.Balt.L.Rev.,Vol.41,2012,pp.412-13.
[211]Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012,p.309,322.
[212]见本文第三部分的第二方面的第一项。
[213]见本文第三部分的第二方面的第一项。
[214]Karen Tokarz,et al.,“Legal Education and the Legal Profession in Crisis:The Need for a New Law School Curriculum with Expanded Experiential Legal Education and Clinical Courses for All Law Students”,Wash.U.J.L.&Pol'y,Vol.43,forthcoming 2013.
[215]213Washington&LEE university new third year reform,http://www.law.w lu.edulthirdyear/(last visited June 11,2013)(on file with the McGeorge Law Review).为进行深层次的探讨,需要大量的技能指导、法律诊所或者是实习。See Karen Tokarz,et al.,“Legal Education and the Legal Profession in Crisis:The Need for a New Law School Curriculum with Expanded Experiential Legal Education and Clinical Courses for All Law Students”,Wash.U.J.L.&Pol'y,Vol.43,forthcoming 2013。
[216]见本文第三部分。
[217]见本文第三部分。
[218]See Todd D.Rakoff&Martha Minow,“A Case for Another Case Method”,Vand.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2007,p.603;Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012,pp.309-10;Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,pp.231-32.
[219]Brian Z.Tamanaha,“the crisis in legal education”pp.2-6.
[220]见本文第三部分的第一方面的第一项。
[221]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,p.444.
[222]Report of the Committee on the Future of the In-House Clinic,J.Legal Educ.Vol.42,1992,p.538.最新数据表明学生与老师的比列有所下降,平均下降了5至8个学生(占该调查的40.9%),9至12个学生(占该调查的32.3%)。David A.Santacroce&Robert R.Kuehn,“center for the study of applied legal education:the 2010-11 survey of applied legal education”,2012,p.16.available at http://www.csale.org/files/CSALE.Report.on.2010-11.Survey.5.16.12.Revised.pdf(on file with the McGeorge Law Review)。
[223]Report of the Committee on the Future of the In-House Clinic,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.42,1992,p.511.(虽然法律诊所运动开始于从事监督的实践者,但许多法律诊所的老师开始相信通过实践从业者对学生进行监督是存有问题的方法,因为在这个课堂中教学不是偶然,而是起到主要作用)。
[224]Laurie Barron,“Learning How to Learn:Carnegie's Third Apprenticeship”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.18,2011,p.101(描述一个期中现场会议进程的发展)。
[225]J.P.Ogilvy,“Guidelines for the Evaluation of Legal Externship Programs”,Gonz.L.Rev.,Vol.38,2003,p.155,165.
[226]Eric J.Gouvin,“Teaching Business Lawyering in Law Schools:A Candid Assessment of the Challenges and Some Suggestions for Moving Ahead”,Umkcl.Rev.,Vol.78,2009,pp.443-44.
[227]Michael Hunter Schwartz,“Teaching Lw by Design:How Learning Theory and Instructional Design Can Inform and Reform Law Teaching”,San Diego L.Rev.,Vol.38,2001,pp.351-52.
[228]Michael Hunter Schwartz,“Teaching Lw by Design:How Learning Theory and Instructional Design Can Inform and Reform Law Teaching”,San Diego L.Rev.,Vol.38,2001,pp.351-52.
[229]Brent E.New ton,“The Ninety-Five Theses:Systemic Reforms of American Legal Education and Licensure”,S.C.L.Rev.,Vol.64,2012,pp.101-02.
[230]Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012,p.311.(描述了在过去的三十年中,学费的大幅上涨,明显超过了通货膨胀)。
[231]Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012,pp.315-318.(注意到建筑改造、建设成本以及教师平均工资的增加)。
[232]Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012,pp.316-318.此外,在繁荣时期学费上涨并不总是由于其实际成本的上涨:一些学校提高学费仅仅是为增强他们的声望。Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012,pp.311-313。
[233]Robert R.Kuehn,“Pricing Clinical Legal Education”,available athttp://papers.ssm.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=2318042(last visited Oct.25,2013)(on file with the McGeorge Law Review).
[234]Brian Z.Tamanaha,“the crisis in legal education”pp.2-6.
[235]美国律师协会要求法学院向法律诊所的教师提供类似于任期的一种合理的保障机制。ABA standards for the accreditation of law schools,Standard 405(c)(2012)。
[236]Brian Z.Tamanaha,“the crisis in legal education”pp.2-6.
[237]Brian Z.Tamanaha,“the crisis in legal education”pp.2-6.
[238]对于遵守和执行美国律师协会关于给予法律诊所教师一个安全性职位的规定一直都是一个问题。最近的一项调查数据表明法律诊所教师中大约有20%是终身的,另有7%是临时聘用。而另有17.5%有五年以上的长期合同。有关这项规定的历史和实施情况,请参阅Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,p.183.鉴于以往的执法历史,一些学校会发现,出于经济需要,它们将解雇最适合成为课程改革领导者的教员。
[239]Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012,pp.309-10.
[240]在此讨论中,一个常见的反对意见是,教师们根本没有能力从事偏离传统案例对话方法的教学方法。然而,笔者认为那些提出反对意见的人夸大了它,原因有两个:第一,在本文的第一部分和第二部分提及,在案例教学法以及其他教学方法之间存在许多教学结构的相似之处。我们有理由期待,在一种具备技能指导、高水平智力以及拥有其他技能理论基础的教师,能够学会适应他们的方法。第二,大多数针对法学院的失望情绪,都是建立在这样一种刻板印象的基础上的:拥有博士学位的教授没有实践经验,而精英法学院的经验(如果有的话)为他们提供了信息。Harry T.Edwards,“The Growing Disjunction Between Legal Education and the Legal Profession”,Mich.L.Rev.,Vol.91,1992,p.34,34-42 and n.15.(这些抱怨是建立在他对精英法学院做法的观察以及他分发给前雇员的一份调查报告的基础之上,这些雇员大多毕业于这些法学院)。这些刻板印象是否适用于非精英学校(或通过复制精英学校的招聘做法而不努力成为精英学校的学校)是值得怀疑的。
[241]Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012(探讨法律诊所式教学的作用以及花费)。
[242]Peter A.Joy,“The Cost of Clinical Legal Education”,B.C.J.L.&Soc.,Justice,Vol.32,2012.
[243]对于该课程开发与实施的更为详细的描述,请参阅Bobbi McAdoo et al.,“It's Time to Get It Right:Problem-Solving in the First-Year Curriculum”,Wash.U.J.L.&Pol'y,Vol.39,2012,p.39。
[244]在前两年中,汉姆林法学院要求学生参加;合同法(6学分),侵权法I(3学分),民事诉讼法(6学分),刑法(3学分),财产法(3学分),宪法I(3学分),职业责任(2学分),法律调查与写作(第一年5学分,其后2学分),国际法(3学分)。“Graduation Requirements for JD”,Hamline Univ.Sch.of Law.2013,http://law.ham line.edulContent.aspx?id=2147503615(on file with the McGeorge Law Review)。
[245]在考虑体验进阶计划的过程中,教师们还投票修改了国际法要求,要求学生完成至少两个学分的课程,其中一些是技能或体验课程。
[246]三年内的内部研究表明,汉姆林法学院的学生实际上会通过许多不同方式来支配选修学分,并且他们的律师考试过关率与其课程选择无关。大约三分之二的学生会选择7至9个学分的律师课程,绝大多数的选择了至少6个学分的课程。该数据是基于汉姆林学生在明尼苏达州采用统一律师资格考试之前参加明尼苏达州律师资格考试的数据,当时参加律师资格考试的科目总数为11门,而不是13门。Memorandum from Kate Kruse and Bobbi McAdoo to the Faculty of Ham line University,Experiential Progression Proposal(March 6,2013)[hereinafterMemo to Faculty](on file with the M cGeorge Law Review)。
[247]这种情形因明尼苏达州刚刚采取统一司法考试而变得更加复杂,统一的律师资格考试测试的是一系列不同的科目,这些科目需要额外的6个学分才能获得全部的律师资格。证书课程也在努力扩展证书中的经验要求,以便学生在完成证书课程时能够满足扩展的技能要求。
[248]汉姆林法学院最终通过了一个体验式发展计划,并保留了其渐进式结构。但是其对学分的要求有所降低——在大二设置一个技能实验室课程,在高年级设置一个六学分的课程,法学院同时承诺将研究如何删减律师教学课程或合并课程,以减少覆盖所有律师考试科目所需的总学分。
[249]例如,汉姆林法学院的内部研究表明,当学院要求两个技能学分时,学生往往会选择平均9.77个学分的技能课程。学生将会在1至29学分的范围内选择技能学分的数量,大约12%的学生仅仅满足最低要求选择一个2或3学分的课程;约15%的学生选择了15学分或更多总学分的课程;其余的则介于两者之间,没有可分解的分布模式。法律考试的通过率与学生课程的选择没有明显关联。See Memorandum from Kate Kruse and BobbiM cAdoo to the Faculty of Ham line University,Experiential Progression Proposal(March 6,2013)[hereinafter Memo to Faculty](on file with the McGeorge Law Review)。
[250]See Todd D.Rakoff&Martha Minow,“A Case for Another Case Method”,Vand.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2007,p.605.(谈到哈佛大学第一年的问题解决课程时,他说:“显然,法律能力在分析复杂而丰富的事实描述性问题以及创造解决问题的其他途径时表现出来”)。
[251]如前所述,这将取决于法学院削减预算的优先事项,以及它们在多大程度上保护了其法律诊所和其他体验式教学教师的工作保障。See Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008。
[252]请参阅本文的第二部分。
[253]其他人也对全面的课程改革应有的面貌作出描述:例如,在最近发表的文章中,Karen Tokarz,Antoinette Sedillo Lopez,Peggy Maisel以及Robert F.Seibel声称每一个法学毕业生应该“至少在三年的法学院学习中完成21学分以上的体验课程,其中包括至少五个学分的法律诊所或校外课程”。Karen Tokarz,et al.,“Legal Education and the Legal Profession in Crisis:The Need for a New Law School Curriculum with Expanded Experiential Legal Education and Clinical Courses for All Law Students”,Wash.U.J.L.&Pol'y,Vol.43,forthcoming 2013.p.2。
[254]Todd D.Rakoff&Martha Minow,“A Case for Another Case Method”,Vand.L.Rev.,Vol.60,2007,p.36.(描述了哈佛法学院大一的问题解决课程的理论概念化)。
[255]The lawyering program,http://www.law.nyu.edulacademicslawyeringprogram lindex.htm(last visited June 11,2013)(on file with the McGeorge Law Review).
[256]Nancy M.Maurer&Linda FittsMischler,“Introduction to Lawyering:Teaching Students to Think Like Professionals”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.44,1994,p.96(描述了奥尔巴尼的整合与法律写作的计划);Bobbi M cAdoo et al.,“It's Time to Get It Right:Problem-Solving in the First-Year Curriculum”,Wash.U.J.L.&Pol'y,Vol.39,2012(描述哈姆林基于问题解决模式的计划)。
[257]Memorandum from Kate Kruse and BobbiMcAdoo to the Faculty of Ham line University,Experiential Progression Proposal(March 6,2013)[hereinafter Memo to Faculty](on file with the M cGeorge Law Review).
[258]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,pp.234.
[259]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.234-35.
[260]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.236.
[261]同上注(“我们的终身制教师可以自由地专注于自己的在理论、政策方面的优势;而把达成协议的教学留给那些最了解当前实践规范和程序的人”)。
[262]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479.
[263]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.234.
[264]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.234.
[265]例如,我在内华达州拉斯维加斯大学任教时,曾为证据课程设立一个实验室,我们关注的话题是“打开大门”—刑事案件中的不良证据,如果你了解其在现实中是如何应用将更容易把握。实验室也被设计用来教授测验证人的技能,但它是在帮助学生掌握一个困难的理论概念的背景下进行的。
[266]例如,汉姆林法学院拥有一个整体规划来重点发展三个方面的技能:辩护、解决当事人问题以及交易规划,其从大一的问题解决课程开始,到完成高级技能课程学分结束。大学设计的实验室将成为技能发展的中间环节,第一阶段将开发实验室模块,将进一步在证据、家庭法,遗嘱和信托,担保交易、刑事诉讼法以及侵权法II等方面提高学生辩护、解决当事人问题以及处理交易的能力。
[267]Karl L.Llewellyn,“The Current Crisis in Legal Education”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.1,1948(讨论采用传统教学方法的法学院)。
[268]对于一个标志性努力的描述,请参阅Carolyn Grose,“Outcomes-Based Education One Course at a Time:My Experimentwith Wills and Trusts”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.62,2012,p.336.(描述了一个大规模参与的法律课程的系统和整体性的重组,整合当事人访谈、当事人咨询和故事性叙述方面的技能,将教学与基本的理论覆盖相结合和平衡)。
[269]David A.Santacroce&Robert R.Kuehn,“center for the study of applied legal education:the2010-11 survey of applied legal education”,2012,p.28.
[270]课堂上教师也可以使用预先录制的模块,以腾出时间进行更多基于技能学习的互动。See Michelle Pistone,“Flipped Learning for Legal Education,best practices for legal education(Apr.25,2013)”,http://bestpracticeslegaled.albanylawblogs.org/2013/04/25/flippedlearning-for-legal-education/(on filewith the McGeorge Law Review)。
[271]Roy Stuckey,“Teaching with Purpose:Defining and Achieving Desired Outcomes in Clinical Law Courses”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.13,2007,pp.822-23.
[272]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479.
[273]见美国律师协会认证标准,ABA standards for accreditation of law schools 2012-2013,Standard 302(4),available at http://www.americanbar.org/groupslegal-education/resources/standards.html。
[274]Roy Stuckey,“Teaching with Purpose:Defining and Achieving Desired Outcomes in Clinical Law Courses”,Clinical L.Rev.,Vol.13,2007,pp.822-23.
[275]Michael Hunter Schwartz,“Teaching Lw by Design:How Learning Theory and Instructional Design Can Inform and Reform Law Teaching”,San Diego L.Rev.,Vol.38,2001,p.379-82.
[276]最好的实践调查报告,William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.165。
[277]Carolyn Grose,“Outcomes-Based Education One Course at a Time:My Experimentwith Wills and Trusts”,J.Legal Educ.,Vol.62,2012,p.336.
[278]Washington&Lee School of Law,“Third Year Component Descriptions”,http://law.w lu.edulthird year/page.asp?pageid=652(last visited June 14,2013)(on file with McGeorge Law Review).
[279]例如,Washington&与Lee这样描述娱乐法实习课程:该课程注重娱乐行业的各项现实要素的起草以及事项的协商。同时,该课程将向学生介绍各种交易结构和合同条款,发现问题并寻找解决方法,与你的当事人谈判(关注你的当事人认为重要和不重要的事项及其原因)以及起草相关必要文件。为了更好的模拟现实世界,学生将会参与两笔同时进行的交易,一方代表“人才”,另一方代表“公司实体”。课程中会有一个实时的、亲自动手的谈判环节,以及一个书面环节,旨在反映通过电子邮件起草和修改文件来达成交易的方式。老师也会努力让客人“当事人”来上课,为学生提供一个现实的体验,解决当事人的需求和关注,并提供最好的建议(包括当事人可能不想听到的建议)。
[280]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.236.
[281]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.236.
[282]Victor Fleischer,“Deals:Bringing Corporate Transactions Into the Law School Classroom”,Colum.Bus.L.Rev.,Vol.2002,2002,p.479.
[283]Robert C.Illig,“The Oregon Method:An Alternative Model for Teaching Transactional Law”,Vol.59,J.Legal Educ.,2009,p.223.
[284]Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008.p.326;Karen Tokarz,et al.,“Legal Education and the Legal Profession in Crisis:The Need for a New Law School Curriculum with Expanded Experiential Legal Education and Clinical Courses for All Law Students”,Wash.U.J.L.&Pol'y,Vol.43,forthcoming 2013.
[285]在一项针对新的非营利组织和政府律师的调查中,超过83%的人认为法律诊所在帮助他们准备法律实践方面“非常有用”,72%的人认为外派/实地实习“非常有用”,只有48%的人认为技能课程“非常有用”。NALP,“2011 survey of law school experiential opportunities and benefits:responses from governmentand nonprofit lawyers”,2012,p.26.一项针对私人律师事务所新员工的调查得出了类似的结果,近三分之二(63%)的人认为法律诊所“非常有用”,紧随其后的是外派/实地实习(60%)和技能课程(38.5%)。NALP,“2010 survey of law school experiential opportunities and benefits”2011,p.26。
[286]最好的实践调查报告,William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,pp.166-67。
[287]最好的实践调查报告,William M.Sullivan,ETAL.“educating lawyers:preparation for the practice of law”,Carnegie Report,2007,p.110。
[288]请参阅本文第一部分之下的第四方面;Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,p.309。
[289]Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,p.309.
[290]MargaretMartin Barry,et al.,Clinical Legal Education for This Millennium:The Third Wave,Clinical L.Rev.Vol.7,2000,p.28.
[291]MargaretMartin Barry,et al.,Clinical Legal Education for This Millennium:The Third Wave,Clinical L.Rev.Vol.7,2000,p.28.
[292]Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,p.309.
[293]见本文第二部分中的第四方面。
[294]Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,p.321.
[295]Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,pp.321-22.
[296]Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,pp.321-22.
[297]Michael Hunter Schwartz,“Teaching Lw by Design:How Learning Theory and Instructional Design Can Inform and Reform Law Teaching”,San Diego L.Rev.,Vol.38,2001,pp.383-409.
[298]Peter A.Joy&Robert R.Kuehn,“The Evolution of ABA Standards for Clinical Faculty”,Tenn.L.Rev.,Vol.75,2008,p.321.